LIBRARY" 

UNIVERSITY 
CALIfOKM* 

SAN  DIEGO 


Historic  Styles 

in 
Furniture 


COLONIAL    FURNITURE 
THE  WEST  PARLOR  — MOUNT  VERNON 


HISTORIC  STYLES 

IN 

FURNITURE 


By 

VIRGINIA  ROBIE 


BOSTON    AND   NEW  YORK 
HOUGHTOX   MIFFLIX   COMPANY 


1916 


COPYRIGHT,  1905,  By 
HERBERT    S.   STONE 


PUBLISHERS'  NOTE 

THIS  account  of  "  Historic  Styles  in  Furniture  "  was 
originally  issued  ten  years  ago  by  the  publishers  of  The 
House  Beautiful  magazine,  mainly  for  special  sale  in  con- 
nection with  their  publication.  It  received  little  exploi- 
tation in  the  general  market,  and  its  merits  did  not, 
therefore,  become  widely  known.  The  present  publishers 
have  believed  that  there  is  a  distinct  place  for  this  vol- 
ume, containing,  as  it  does,  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
development  of  styles  in  furniture  through  ten  centu- 
ries, and  giving  the  backgrounds  and  settings  an  equal 
importance  with  the  furniture  itself . 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  Furniture  of  the  Middle  Ages 3 

II  Furniture  of  the  Fourteenth  Century 15 

III  Furniture  of  the  Fifteenth  Century 25 

IV  Furniture  of  the  Italian  Renaissance    35 

V  Furniture  of  the  French  Renaissance 55 

VI  Furniture  Making  in  Germany  and  The  Low  Countries 71 

VII  Furniture  of  the  Spanish  Renaissance 81 

VIII  English  Furniture  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seventeentn  Centuries 85 

IX  Louis  XIV  Furniture 99 

X  Louis  XV  Furniture in 

XI  Louis  XVI  Furniture 123 

XII  English  Furniture  of  the  Eighteenth  Century •. 133 

XIII  Furniture  of  the  French  Empire 157 

XIV  Colonial  Furniture i6<; 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

An  Early  Example  of  Gothic  Furniture  , 5 

Folding  Chair,  Late  Middle  Ages 7 

St.  Peter's  Chair 9 

English  Coronation  Chair 1 1 

Bedchamber,  Castle  Meran    17 

French  Chest,  Late  Fourteenth  Century 18 

German  Chest,  Late  Fourteenth  Century 19 

Tyrolean  Table,  Late  Fourteenth  Century   20 

Tyrolean  Cupboard,  Late  Fourteenth  Century 21 

Monastery  Chair   26 

Hall,  Late  Middle  Ages   , 27 

French  Gothic  Panel 28 

Flemish  Cupboard 29 

Anteroom,  Castle  Meran   31 

Sixteenth-century  Chest  of  Drawers,  Lucca 36 

Sixteenth-century  Cabinet,  Lucca 37 

Anteroom  Chair  of  Walnut 38 

Gothic  Chair,  with  Renaissance  Details 39 

Bedchamber  in  the  Vincigliata,  Fiesole 40 

State  Dining-room  in  the  Vincigliata,  Fiesole 41 

Renaissance  Beamed  Ceiling,  Residence  of  Frederic  C.  Bartlett,  Chicago 43 

Renaissance  Coffered  Ceiling,  Residence  of  the  late  William  C.  Whitney,  New  York  City 45 

Renaissance  Carving 46 

Door  of  the  Vatican,  Dssigned  by  Raphael 46 

Carved  Chairs,  Lucca  Museum 47 

Desk  and  Chair  Used  by  Savonarola,  Florence 49 

Screen  of  Intarsia 50 

Florentine  Marriage  Coffer 51 

A  Fine  Example  of  Renaissance  Carving 51 

State  Chair,  Late  Renaissance,  Baroque  Treatment 52 

Louis  XII  Fireplace,  Chateau  of  Blois 56 

Renaissance  Chair,  Chateau  of  Blois 57 

Fireplace  Built  for  Claude,  Wife  of  Francois  I.,  Chateau  of  Blois 59 

Fireplace,  Gallery  of  Henri  II,  Fontainebleau 61 

Bedstead  Belonging  to  Anne  of  Austria,  Fontainebleau   62 

Renaissance  Paneling,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston 63 

Louis  XIII  Room,  Fontainebleau 65 

Cabinet,  Late  Renaissance 67 

Cabinet  of  Dutch  Marquetry 72 

Flemish  Cupboard 73 

Hall  in  the  Gruuhuse,  Sixteenth  Century 75 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN  FURNITURE 


PAGE 

Room  in  an  Old  Dutch  Home,  Edam 76 

German  Press,  Typical  Example  of  Renaissance  Carving   77 

Spanish  Chair,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston , 82 

Linen-fold  Cupboard,  Sixteenth  Century 87 

Presence  Chamber,  Hardwick  Hall,  Elizabethan  Period 89 

Dining-room,  Jacobean  Period 91 

Seventeenth-century  Cupboard 92 

Chest  of  Drawers,  Memorial  Hall,  Deerfield,  Mass 93 

Tapestry  Woven  by  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 94 

Chair  in  Versailles,  Regency  of  Anne  of  Austria 100 

Louis  XIV  Clock 101 

Boulle  Console,  Early  Louis  XIV 102 

Bureau,  Late  Louis  XIV   103 

Example  of  Simple  Louis  XIV  Furniture 105 

Headboard,  Louis  XIV  Bedstead 107 

Gobelin  Tapestry,  Designed  by  Boucher  and  Tessier 112 

Louis  XV  Sofa  Petit  Trianon 113 

Louis  XV  Chair,  Garde-Meuble     115 

Louis  XV  Arm-chair,  Garde-Meuble 117 

Louis  XV  Clock 118 

Louis  XVI  Bedstead,  Fontainebleau 125 

Louis  XVI  Cabinet,  Fontainebleau 126 

Louis  XVI  Clock 127 

Writing-desk  and  Bureau-Toilette    128 

Louis  XVI  Chair,  Petit  Trianon 129 

Louis  XVI  Chair,  Petit  Trianon 130 

Chippendale  Mirror 134 

Chippendale's  Dutch  Type,  I    135 

Chippendale  Chair,  II 135 

Chippendale  Arm-chair,  III 136 

Ladder-back  Chair,  IV 137 

Chippendale  Roundabout,  V 138 

Chippendale  Chair,  French  Manner,  VII 139 

Shield-shaped  Chair,  Hepplewhite 140 

Hepplewhite  Table    141 

Dining-room,   Residence  of  Frederic  C.  Bartlett,  Chicago  142 

Hepplewhite  Sideboard 143 

Prince  of  Wales  Chair,  Hepplewhite 144 

Hepplewhite  Table 145 

Adam  Commode,  Painted  by  Pergolesi   146 

Bracket  and  Vase  for  Candles,  Adam  Style 147 

Lock  for  a  Cabinet  Door  148 

Adam  Mantelpiece,  Decorated  by  Angelica  Kauffman 149 

Sheraton  Chairs 150 

A  Fine  Example  of  Sheraton's  Work 151 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Sheraton  Drop-leaf  Table 152 

Sheraton  Chest  of  Drawers 152 

Sheraton  Sideboard  and  Chippendale  Mirror 153 

Roman  Ceremonial  Chair 158 

Bedroom  of  Napoleon  I,  Fontainebleau 159 

Empire  Chairs  and  Divan,  Compiegne 160 

Old  Cradle,  Brought  over  in  the  Mayflower 166 

Early  New  England  Interior,  Showing  Pine  Settle 167 

Seventeenth-century  Chairs 168 

Wainscot  Chair  with  Rush  Seat 169 

Furniture  of  the  Early  Eighteenth  Century 170 

Brass  Clock,  Seventeenth  Century 171 

Flemish  Chair,  Salem,  Mass 172 

Queen  Anne  Chair,  Early  Eighteenth  Century   173 

Mahogany  Low-Boy  with  Cabriole  Leg  and  Club  Foot  174 

Mahogany  High-Boy  with  Scroll  Top 175 

Corner  Cupboard  with  Scroll  Top 176 

Kitchen  of  the  Whipple  House,  Ipswich,  Mass 177 

Chippendale  Roundabout  Chair 178 

Washington's  Bedchamber,  Mount  Vernon  179 

Rare  Chippendale  Chair 180 

Bedchamber,  containing  Four-poster  and  Wing  Chair 181 

Four-poster,  Late  Eighteenth  Century   „ 182 

American  Empire  Table , , 183 

American  Empire  Sofa 184 

American  Empire  Sewing-Table  185 

Colonial  Parlor 187 

Colonial  Dining-room 189 


CHAPTER  I 

FURNITURE   OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

THE  HISTORY  OF  FURNITURE  IS  SO  THOROUGHLY  A  PART  OF  THE 
HISTORY  OF  THE  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  DIFFERENT  PEOPLES 
THAT  ONE  CAN  UNDERSTAND  AND  APPRECIATE  THE  SEVERAL 
CHANGES  IN  STYLE,  SOMETIMES  GRADUAL  AND  SOMETIMES  RAPID, 
ONLY  BY  REFERENCE  TO  CERTAIN  HISTORICAL  EVENTS  AND 
INFLUENCES  BY  WHICH  SUCH  CHANGES  WERE  EFFECTED. — 
FREDERICK  LITCHFIELD. 


CHAPTER   I 

FURNITURE   OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

AS  a  record  of  manners  and  customs  the  illuminated  missal  is  to  the  Middle 
Ages  what  the  sculptured  frieze  is  to  ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  It  repre- 
sents the  earliest  history  of  domestic  life  of  mediaeval  times.  The  Egyptians 
constructed  their  household  furniture  in  stone,  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  marble 
and  bronze,  and  the  people  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  wood.  Setting  aside  coronation 
chairs  and  choir  stalls  few  pieces  of  mediaeval  handicraft  are  in  existence.  With- 
out the  aid  of  old  manuscripts  all  domestic  furniture  made  prior  to  the  thirteenth 
century  would  be  a  matter  of  conjecture.  Thanks  to  these  human  documents  a 
faithful,  if  crude,  picture  is  obtained  of  the  life  of  the  tunes.  Furniture  is  merely  a 
detail  in  the  old  drawings;  simply  an  accessory  used  by  the  scribe  to  illustrate  a 
situation.  If  a  royal  banquet  be  the  theme,  a  long,  narrow  table  is  suggested;  if  a 
coronation  ceremony  form  the  subject  of  the  story,  a  chair  of  state  is  rudely  indi- 
cated; if  an  interview  between  a  knight  and  a  lady  be  the  main  point  in  the  tale, 
a  bench  or  settle  fills  the  background.  Picturesque  sidelights  on  customs  and  cos- 
tumes, as  well  as  furniture,  are  revealed  in  the  old  illuminations. 

Broadly  speaking  the  period  termed  the  Middle  Ages  began  with  the  fall  of 
Rome  and  ended  with  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  but  it  was  the  great  interme- 
diate stage,  roughly  spanned  by  the  sixth  and  tenth  centuries,  which  constituted 
the  dark  age  of  history  and  art. 

The  British  Museum  contains  illuminated  manuscripts  dating  back  to  the  ninth 
century.  From  these  priceless  records  and  from  wills  of  the  period  the  home  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  thane  has  been  deciphered.  Fragments  from  many  sources  have 
been  fitted  together  and  a  fairly  clear  picture  has  resulted. 

The  ham,  or  home,  contained  one  large  apartment  called  the  heal  which  served 
as  a  dining,  living,  and  sleeping  room.  Adjoining  it  was  the  bower,  or  chamber, 
reserved  for  the  ladies  of  the  household.  The  hall  was  sparsely  furnished.  A 
board  laid  upon  a  trestle  formed  the  dining-table.  Benches  and  stools  were  the 
common  seats  and  were  used  by  all  members  of  the  family,  except  the  lord  and  his 
lady  who  occupied  two  rudely  constructed  chairs.  The  walls  were  hung  with  walh- 
rifts,  or  wall  cloths,  which  served  as  a  protection  from  wind  and  rain.  The  rafters 
were  covered  with  a  ceil  cloth,  from  which  our  word  "ceiling"  is  derived.  In  the 
center  of  the  floor  was  the  hearth,  the  smoke  of  the  fire  escaping  through  a  louvre, 
or  opening  in  the  roof.  Illumination  was  provided  by  torches  and  by  a  primitive 

3 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN   FURNITURE 


lamp  of  horn,  termed  a  cresset.     The  cresset  lamp  was  a  feature  in  English  houses 
for  many  centuries    and  may  still  be  found  in  rural  districts. 

The  bower  contained  a  straw  bed  and  a  cyst,  or  chest.  A  curtain  protected  the 
bed  and  served  to  conceal  the  chest  which  was  the  most  important  article  in  the 
house.  The  chest,  or  coffer,  was  a  characteristic  piece  of  mediaeval  handicraft, 
and  the  first  piece  of  furniture  to  express  the  skill  of  the  wood-carver  and  the  metal- 
worker. The  development  of  the  chest,  in  its  various  guises  of  coffer,  hutch,  and 
bahut,  forms  an  interesting  phase  of  furniture-making.  The  cupboard,  the  dresser, 
the  credence,  the  cabinet,  and  the  bureau  were  all  evolved  from  this  primitive 
article.  In  early  Anglo-Saxon  times  it  was  a  strong  box  placed  near  the  bed  and 
large  enough  to  hold  the  family  valuables.  In  an  age  when  one  baron  waged  war- 
fare upon  another  it  was  important  to  have  a  receptacle  always  at  hand  where 
valuables  could  be  stored,  and,  if  necessary,  easily  transported. 

The  homes  of  the  common  people  of  this  period  lacked  the  barest  comforts.  A 
bench  and  a  chest  and  a  few  skins  of  wild  beasts  were  the  household  effects  of  the 
masses.  The  bench  was  crudely  constructed  and  without  a  back.  The  chest 
was  of  more  careful  workmanship  and  served  many  purposes.  It  wras  sometimes 
used  as  a  seat,  sometimes  as  a  table,  sometimes  as  a  bed.  It  was  the  poor  man's 
chief  article  of  furniture  and  as  such  it  remained  until  after  the  Norman  Conquest. 
*  The  conditions  of  Europe  were  not  such  as  to  foster  the  gentle  side  of  living. 
Two  figures  were  pre-eminent:  the  monk  and  the  soldier.  One  kept  art  alive; 
the  other  nearly  exterminated  it.  Italy,  France,  and  Germany  were  torn  with 
wars,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  and  England,  while  more  remote  from  the  cause  of 
conflict,  was  also  more  remote  from  the  centers  of  civilization.  Southern  countries 
still  preserved  a  few  classic  traditions.  In  the  north  they  were  long  since  extinct. 
As  England  was  last  to  respond  to  the  Renaissance  so  she  was  last  to  develop  a, 
mediaeval  art.  At  best  it  was  a  rude  age  even  in  the  countries  that  came  in  touch 
with  Greek  and  oriental  influences. 

With  the  Norman  Conquest  came  England's  awakening  to  continental  methods. 
With  the  invasion  came  French  ideas  in  dress  and  manners.  A  more  refined  mode 
of  living  followed.  Houses  were  fitted  with  the  rude  comforts  which  had  been  known 
on  the  continent  for  nearly  a  century.  Walls  received  their  first  decorations.  The 
skins  of  wild  beasts,  hung  against  the  rafters  to  keep  out  the  cold,  gave  place  to 
pieces  of  rude  tapestry.  Fireplaces  were  fitted  with  Norman  fire-dogs,  and  the 
blazing  torches  were  superseded  by  branches  of  iron  holding  tallow  candles.  In  the 
homes  of  the  feudal  lords  dishes  of  metal  increased  the  limited  table  service  of  wood 
and  horn. 

In  Ivanhoe  a  vivid  picture  is  given  of  Cedric's  castle,  where  French  innovations 
found  little  favor: 

4 


FURNITURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


"  In  a  hall,  the  height  of  which  was  greatly  disproportioned  to  its  extreme  length 
and  width,  stood  a  long  oaken  table,  formed  of  planks  rough  hewn  from  the  forest, 
and  which  had  scarcely  received  any  polish.  On  the  sides  of  the  apartment  hung 
implements  of  war  and  of  the  chase,  and  there  were  at  each  corner  doors  which  gave 
access  to  other  parts  of  the  extensive  building.  The  other  appointments  of  the 
mansion  partook  of  the  rude  simplicity  of  the  Saxon  period,  which  Cedric  piqued 
himself  upon  maintaining.  The  floor  was  composed  of  earth  mixed  with  lime  and 
trodden  into  a  hard  substance.  For  about  one  quarter  of  the  length  of  the  apart- 
ment the  floor  was  raised  by  a  step,  and  this  space,  which  wras  called  the  dais,  was 
occupied  only  by  the  principal  members  of  the  family  and  visitors  of  distinction. 


AN     EARLY    EXAMPLE     OF    GOTHIC    FURNITURE    AS    DE- 
PICTED  IN   AN   OLD   ILLUMINATION 

^ 

"For  this  purpose  a  table,  richly  covered  with  a  scarlet  cloth,  was  placed  trans- 
versely across  the  platform,  from  the  middle  of  which  ran  the  longer  and  lower  board 
where  the  domestics  and  inferior  persons  sat.  Massive  chairs  were  placed  upon  the 
dais,  and  over  these  seats  and  the  elevated  table  was  fastened  a  canopy  of  cloth 
which  served  in  some  degree  to  protect  the  dignitaries  who  occupied  that  distin- 
guished station,  from  the  weather,  and  especially  from  the  rain,  which  in  some 
places  found  its  way  through  the  ill-constructed  roof.  The  walls  of  this  upper  end 
of  the  hall,  as  far  as  the  dais  extended,  were  covered  with  hangings  or  curtains  with 
some  attempts  at  tapestry  or  embroidery.  In  the  center  of  the  dais  were  placed 
two  chairs  more  elevated  than  the  rest,  for  the  master  and  mistress  of  the  family. 
To  each  of  these  was  added  a  footstool,  curiously  carved  and  inlaid  with  ivory, 
which  mark  of  distinction  was  peculiar  to  them." 

The  construction  of  houses  changed  little  in  the  century  following  the  Conquest. 
Norman  names  were  given  to  various  portions  of  the  dwelling,  but  the  general  char- 

5 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


acter  remained  the  same.  The  heal  became  the  salla  and  the  ham  the  manoir.  The 
greatest  innovation  was  the  substitution  of  a  built-in  fireplace  for  the  center  hearth. 
In  many  homes  the  fire  continued  to  be  built  in  the  old  way,  but  where  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  permitted  the  newer  method  was  preferred.  The  bower,  which 
was  formerly  built  on  the  ground  floor,  was  elevated  to  the  second  story  and  termed 
a  soler,  a  term  supposed  to  have  been  derived  from  the  word  sol.  A  new  room 
called  a  parloir,  or  talking-room,  was  the  most  important  addition  to  the  house. 

The  arrangement  of  the  bedroom  changed  little,  except  that  a  wooden  bed  with 
curtains  replaced  the  bed  of  straw.  Hungerford  Pollen  in  the  hand-book  of  the 
furniture  of  South  Kensington  refers  to  the  bedchambers  of  this  period:  "Bed- 
rooms were  furnished  with  ornamental  bed-testers  and  benches  at  the  bed  foot. 
Beds  were  made  with  quilts  and  pillows,  and  with  spotted  or  striped  linen  sheets; 
over  all  was  laid  a  covering  of  green  sag,  badgers'  furs,  the  skins  of  beavers,  or 
martens.  A  perch  for  tame  falcons  was  fixed  to  the  wall.  A  chair  and  a  pro- 
jecting pole,  on  which  clothes  could  be  hung,  completed  the  Anglo-Norman  bed- 
room." 

The  bench  was  a  convenience  in  receiving  visitors.  The  soler  was  used  by  the 
lady  of  the  manor  as  a  sitting-room  until  the  parloir  became  a  common  feature  of 
house-building.  Furniture  was  more  varied  after  the  Conquest  and  included 
settles,  arm-chairs,  and  folding  seats.  Thomas  Wright,  in  treating  of  this  period, 
states  that  our  word  "chair"  is  Anglo-Norman,  and  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  term  was 
sell  or  stol,  the  latter  being  retained  in  our  modern  word  "stool."  Fadestol  was  one 
name  for  a  chair  of  state,  a  word  which  has  been  translated  in  modern  French  to 
fauteuil,  and  in  English  to  arm-chair.  The  Norman  table,  as  depicted  in  the  Bayeux 
tapestry,  is  similar  to  the  Saxon  trestle  design.  It  was  placed  in  the  hall  and  taken 
apart  after  the  meal  was  finished.  "Laying  the  board"  was  a  matter  of  ceremony. 
Lines  were  sharply  drawn  in  regard  to  the  seating  of  the  household.  The  lord  and 
his  lady  occupied  chairs,  the  retainers  sat  upon  benches,  and  those  lower  in  rank 
remained  standing.  The  placing  of  the  salt  was  a  matter  of  consideration.  "Above 
salt"  or  "below  salt"  indicated  the  social  status  of  the  guests. 

Furniture  of  this  age,  with  the  exception  of  the  table,  was  slightly  carved. 
Chests  were  the  first  pieces  to  receive  decorative  treatment  and  chairs  came  second. 
In  the  oldest  manuscripts  there  is  a  suggestion  of  ornament  in  most  of  the  furniture. 
Much  of  the  decoration  is  impossible  to  classify,  for  it  is  too  archaic  to  be  defined, 
but  a  small  portion  may  be  assigned  to  one  of  the  three  great  styles  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

Applied  ornament  during  this  period  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  Byzan- 
tine, Saracenic,  and  Gothic.  The  first  two  had  little  bearing  on  furniture-making 
of  the  north;  the  third  had  a  close  connection  with  all  handicraft  of  the  times. 

6 


FURNITURE  OF  THE   MIDDLE   AGES 


FOLDING  CHAIR,  LATE  MIDDLE  AGES 

Byzantine  ornament  was  based  upon  geometrical  patterns  combined  with  animal 
and  floral  forms.  Animals  were  used  in  a  conventionalized  manner  and  were 
of  religious  significance.  The  fish,  the  serpent,  the  bird,  occur  frequently,  combined 
with  the  circle,  the  trefoil,  and  the  quatrefoil.  The  circle  was  emblematic  of  Omnip- 
otence, the  trefoil  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  quatrefoil  of  the  four  evangelists.  Byzan- 
tine art  originated  in  the  fourth  century  \vhen  the  Emperor  Constantine  removed 
the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  Byzantium.  "The  traditional  Greek  and 
Roman  arts,"  says  Richard  Glazier,  "were  now  assimilated  with  the  arts  of  Persia 
and  Syria,  but  molded  and  influenced  by  the  new  religion,  giving  the  strong  personal 
vitality,  deep  symbolism,  which  was  so  remarkable  throughout  the  Byzantine 
period."  Byzantium  was  changed  to  Constantinople,  but  the  ancient  name  was 
perpetuated  in  the  art  of  the  period.  Saracenic  ornament  was  of  oriental  origin, 
and  its  influence  was  largely  confined  to  countries  that  came  in  touch  with  eastern 
influence.  Unlike  Byzantine  ornament,  animal  forms  were  excluded.  Intricate 
interlaced  lines  and  conventionalized  leaves  formed  the  basis  of  Saracenic  decora- 
tion. Contemporary  with  the  Saracenic  movement  were  two  schemes  of  ornament, 
having  much  in  common  with  the  oriental  style.  These  were  the  Celtic  and  Scandi- 

7 


HISTORIC   STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


navian.  The  beautiful  patterns  of  the  Celts,  based  on  circles,  triangles,  and  endless 
chains,  and  the  bolder  interlaced  work  of  the  Scandinavians,  form  two  unique 
phases  of  mediaeval  designing.  The  Celts  used  the  serpent  as  a  dominant  motif 
while  the  Scandinavians  gave  special  prominence  to  the  dragon. 

These  early  schools  of  ornament  had  little  bearing  on  the  furniture-making  of  the 
period,  but  their  influence  on  future  wood-carving  was  so  important  that  later 
results  cannot  be  understood  without  a  brief  reference  to  them.  Byzantine 
decoration  was  little  fitted  for  domestic  furniture  and  its  use  was  largely  confined 
to  religious  pieces.  The  famous  chair  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  said  to  be  the  oldest 
piece  of  wooden  furniture  in  existence,  is  an  example  of  Byzantine  work.  It  is 
inlaid  in  gold  and  ivory,  in  an  intricate  and  beautiful  manner,  the  details  of  which 
are  lost  in  the  illustration.  The  importance  of  Byzantine  ornament  from  the  view- 
point of  furniture-making  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  trefoil  and  the  quatrefoil  were 
continued  in  Gothic  ornament,  and  in  the  newer  guise  became  a  part  of  furniture 
decoration  for  three  centuries. 

In  order  to  understand  the  significance  of  Gothic  art  and  its  bearing  upon  all 
handicraft  of  the  period  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  the  conditions  that  gave 
birth  to  this  last  and  greatest  of  mediaeval  styles. 

"In  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century  church  architecture  was  revolutionized 
by  the  Gothic  school  which  originated  in  the  north  of  France.  The  Romanesque 
type  of  building  had  long  been  the  accepted  form;  the  time  was  at  hand  for 
a  change.  As  in  all  great  innovations  the  new  movement  swung  far  from  the 
old.  The  pointed,  or  Gothic,  arch  solved  a  problem  of  construction  which 
the  round  or  Romanesque  arch  failed  to  do,  and  finally,  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
people,  inspired  by  the  crusades,  and  the  attempt  to  win  the  Holy  Sepulchre, 
sought  to  express  itself  in  new  forms." 

It  is  not  possible  to  affix  a  date  to  the  first  Gothic  dwelling.  Although  to  France 
belongs  the  honor  of  originating  the  school,  Germany  and  Spain  followed  closely  in 
her  lead.  In  Germany,  Romanesque  architecture  had  reached  a  greater  degree 
of  excellence  than,  in  any  other  country  of  the  north,  save  France,  and  it  was 
more  than  a  century  before  the  Germans  equaled  the  French  in  the  purity  of  their 
Gothic  buildings.  But  the  Germans  held  to  the  type  longer  and  the  exaggerated 
or  "flamboyant  Gothic"  of  the  fifteenth  century,  which  marked  the  decline  of  the 
art  in  France,  was  little  known  in  the  provinces  beyond  the  Rhine.  In  Spain  the 
pointed  arch  was  combined  with  Moorish  cupolas  and  Spanish  minarets.  It  was 
not  until  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  III,  the  contemporary  of  Louis  IX  of  France  and 
Henry  III  of  England,  that  Spain  produced  buildings  that  compared  favorably 
with  those  of  Burgundy  and  Normandy.  Ferdinand  defeated  the  Moors  at  Cor- 
dova and  Seville,  united  the  kingdoms  of  Leon  and  Castile,  and  restored  the  church 


FURNITURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


(sl  E3  03,0  Eg] 


•-  :.-         .       -     . 

^       *  -          "-     '  ''' 


ST.    PZTEH8    CHAIR 


to  Christianity.  Under  his  patronage  the 
fine  arts  flourished.  The  magnificent 
cathedral  at  Toledo,  modeled  on  Notre 
Dame,  and  the  smaller  one  at  Burgos 
were  erected  during  his  reign. 

Italy,  the  stronghold  of  Romanesque 
and  Byzantine  traditions,  was  little  influ- 
enced by  the  Gothic  wave  during  this  cen- 
tury. I^ngland,  now  closely  in  touch  with 
France,  early  felt  the  impulse  and  having 
few  classic  prejudices  to  overcome,  was 
ripe  for  a  rapid  architectural  development. 
The  cathedrals  of  Durham,  Peterborough. 
Norwich,  and  Canterbury  show  the  beauty 
of  the  early  northern  school.  Although 
Gothic  construction  was  confined  for 
nearly  fifty  years  to  church  edifices 
it  was  not  destined  to  remain  sim- 
ply religious  in  character.  Gradually- 
royal  dwellings  were  altered  to  admit  of  traceried  windows,  arched  doors,  and 
foliated  carvings,  and  by  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  homes  of  the 
common  people  were  built  on  similar  principles.  Furniture  of  all  historic  epochs 
is  more  or  less  a  reflection  of  the  prevailing  architecture,  and  this  was  never  more 
clearly  demonstrated  than  during  the  Gothic  period.  Chairs  and  tables,  benches 
and  chests,  all  followed  in  design  or  decoration  the  lines  of  the  pointed  arch. 

Great  changes  had  taken  place  in  the  furnishings  of  houses.  The  crusades 
had  opened  an  intercourse  with  the  orient,  and  the  seaports  of  France,  Italy,  and 
Spain  were  engaged  in  active  commerce  with  the  east.  Sovereigns  of  this  century, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  married  foreign  queens,  and  thus  the  manners  of  one  country 
were  introduced  into  another.  In  England  three  of  the  Plantagenet  kings  had 
wedded  French  princesses  and  as  each  in  turn  inaugurated  French  customs  there 
was  little  of  Saxon  simplicity  at  the  English  court.  The  barons  and  retainers, 
eager  for  royal  approval,  patterned  their  homes  as  closely  as  possible  on  Norman 
standards. 

It  remained  for  Eleanor,  of  Provence,  queen  of  Henry  III,  whose  wardrobe  and 
furniture  filled  three  ships,  to  exert  an  influence  which  was  felt  in  the  homes  of  the 
people.  During  her  reign  the  use  of  tapestries,  hitherto  confined  to  the  palace  and 
to  the  halls  of  the  barons,  became  general,  and  added  greatly  to  the  comfort  and 
beauty  of  interiors.  Tapestries,  or  dorsels,  as  they  were  sometimes  called  from  their 

9 


HISTORIC   STYLES    IN   FURNITURE 


ecclesiastical  origin,  were  both  woven  and  embroidered.  The  former  were  usually 
of  small  and  intricate  patterns,  Byzantine  and  Gothic  in  character,  and  were  imported 
from  the  tapestry-weaving  districts  of  the  Loire.  The  latter,  while  crude  in  work- 
manship, were  more  original  in  treatment.  Thirteenth-century  ladies  in  England 
and  France  spent  many  hours  over  the  tambour  frame  depicting  hunting  and  battle 
scenes,  "jousts,"  and  tournaments.  These  unique  specimens  of  handiwork  were 
modeled  on  the  famous  Bayeux  tapestry,  woven  by  Queen  Matilda  and  her  ladies  in 
waiting. 

During  Eleanor's  reign  wood  paneling  was  introduced  into  Windsor  Castle,  and 
the  halls  of  the  manor  houses  were  further  enriched  with  Gothic  carvings  and  mural 
decorations.  Furniture  in  England  had  already  responded  to  Gothic  tendencies, 
and  the  massive  chairs  reserved  for  state  occasions,  and  the  simpler  settles  for  daily 
use,  were  ornamented  in  the  style  that  had  found  favor  on  the  continent.  No 
furniture  of  Henry's  time  has  been  preserved,  but  a  celebrated  piece  of  Gothic 
carving  of  the  following  reign  is  now  in  existence.  The  coronation  chair  in  West- 
minster, made  famous  by  a  long  line  of  monarchs,  was  first  used  when  Edward 
Plantagenet  ascended  the  throne. 

Prince  Edward  was  on  the  continent  fighting  the  French  when  he  received  the 
tidings  of  his  father's  death.  He  remained  to  vanquish  his  foes,  returning  the  fol- 
lowing year,  in  the  summer  of  1274,  to  take  possession  of  the  English  throne. 

With  the  exception  of  Mary  Tudor  and  William  III,  every  English  sovereign 
from  Edward  I  to  Edward  VII  has  been  crowned  in  this  historic  relic.  William 
III  and  his  queen  were  crowned  together  in  a  chair  made  expressly  for  them,  and 
Queen  Mary  received  a  chair  from  the  pope  especially  blessed  for  her  accession. 

Made  of  oak  and  covered  with  heavy  gilding  "Edward's  chair"  was  the  work 
of  a  Florentine  artist,  employed  at  Guildford  Castle,  who  builded  better  than  he 
knew.  Beneath  the  seat  and  supported  by  lions  is  a  rough-hewn  stone  which  has 
the  tradition  of  being  the  identical  one  which  Jacob  used  as  a  pillow  at  Bethel.  The 
lions  are  modern  and  are  inferior  to  the  rest  of  the  workmanship.  Aside  from  this 
venerated  piece  of  furniture,  so  associated  with  English  history,  little  remains  of 
early  Gothic  handicraft  in  England,  except  that  which  is  ecclesiastical  in  character. 

A  few  of  the  royal  chests  and  coffers  of  the  late  thirteenth  and  early  fourteenth 
centuries  are  in  existence,  and  are  interesting  specimens  of  wood-carving  and  metal 
work.  Hinges  and  locks  are  intricately  chased  with  trefoils  and  quatrefoils,  and 
sometimes  ornamented  with  heraldic  devices.  A  chest  executed  during  the  reign 
of  King  John  is  described  as  being  "of  oak,  richly  decorated  with  iron  plates  and 
hinges";  another  of  similar  date,  "of  oak,  decorated  with  wrought-iron  locks  and 
clamps  and  with  basses  of  metal,  on  which  are  enameled  escutcheons";  another  "of 
carved  cypress,  inlaid  with  ivory  and  mosaics,  and  having  clasps  of  wrought  silver." 

10 


FURNITURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


The  dower  chests  of  Eleanor,  of  Pro- 
vence, although  recorded  as  being  of  un- 
usual beauty,  have  not  survived.  A  coffer 
belonging  to  the  queen  of  Edward  I,  who 
was  of  Spanish  birth,  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  is  of  dark  wood,  painted  in 
Moorish  style,  and  the  colors  still  retain 
something  of  their  early  brilliancy.  The 
hinges  are  of  iron,  heavily  ornamented, 
and  the  locks  display  the  arms  of  Castile. 

With  her  chests  the  Spanish  princess 
brought  Spanish  ideas,  and  thus  a  third 
element  was  added  to  the  Norman- 
Saxon  court.  Moorish  carpets,  decorated 
leather  from  Aragon,  brass  hanging-lamps 
and  Sevillian  pottery  were  among  her 
possessions.  An  inventory  of  the  royal 
household  of  this  period  contains  "pitch- 
ers of  gold,  plates  and  dishes  of  silver, 
gold  salts,  alms  bowls,  silver  hanapers  or 
baskets,  a  pair  of  knives  with  enameled 
silver  sheaths,  a  fork  of  crystal  and  a 
silver  fork  with  handle  of  ebony,  and  a 
looking-glass  of  silver."  "Oizer  mats" 
are  mentioned,  and-  were  used  by  King 
Edward  and  his  queen  as  cushions  when 
they  sat  at  table.  Furniture  was  more 
varied  during  this  reign  and  included  linen-presses,  armoires,  and  dressoirs. 


ENGLISH    CORONATION   CHAIR,   SHOWING   THE 
ARCH    AND   THE    QUATREFOIL 


11 


CHAPTER  II 

FURNITURE   OF  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  THE  POINTED  ARCH,  THE  TREFOIL, 
THE  QUATREFOIL,  AND  SIMPLE  TRACERY.  FURNITURE  WAS  MASSIVE 
AND  GOTHIC  TREATMENT  WAS  CONFINED  TO  DECORATION,  CON- 
STRUCTION BEING  LITTLE  AFFECTED  BY  IT  DURING  THIS  CENTURY. 


CHAPTER   II 

FURNITURE  OF  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY 

GOTHIC  furniture  reached  its  highest  development  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  exaggerations  that  characterized  the  work  of  the  late  Gothic  school, 
when  grotesque  heads  and  distorted  animals  were  introduced  into  many 
forms  of  carving,  were  unknown  at  this  time.  The  furniture  of  this  period  held  to 
a  few  vital  principles  and  these  were  embodied  in  the  plainest  as  well  as  in  the  most 
elaborate  pieces.  The  trefoil  and  the  quartrefoil  used  in  connection  with  the  pointed 
arch,  were  the  chief  motifs  in  wood-carving.  The  tracery  was  simpler  than  in 
the  designs  of  the  succeeding  century  when  furniture-makers  followed  the  lead  of 
the  architects,  and  used  ornament  with  a  lavish  hand. 

Chests  were  still  important  items  in  household  inventories,  but  their  original 
supremacy  was  over.  In  their  wake  followed  a  host  of  pieces,  the  very  names  of 
which  are  now  obsolete.  Standards,  bahuts,  and  hanapers  were  all  a  development 
of  the  chest,  but  each  had  its  special  significance  and  each  its  particular  place. 
Standards  held  implements  of  the  chase,  bahuts  belonged  to  the  housewife  and 
contained  stores  of  linen,  and  in  hanapers  were  concealed  the  family  valuables. 

Cupboards,  literally  meaning  "boards  containing  cups,"  came  into  use  during 
this  period,  and  furniture  was  further  supplemented  by  the  credence  which  was  of 
church  origin.  Like  the  -dressoir  it  served  the  purpose  of  a  buffet  or  serving  table. 
Viollet-le-Duc  illustrates  a  credence  of  the  late  Gothic  period  which  contains  four 
shelves,  arranged  like  steps,  each  one  filled  with  gold  and  silver  vessels.  The 
dressoir  was  of  simpler  form,  and  a  less  costly  article.  The  dresser  as  a  piece  of 
dining  room  furniture  still  retains  its  original  significance.  The  use  of  the  word 
to  designate  a  dressing-table  or  a  bureau  is  modern  and  quite  incorrect. 

The  distinction  between  a  press  and  a  cupboard  was  in  the  beginning  clearly 
defined.  The  cupboard  was  made  without  doors  and  was  scarcely  more  than  a  shelf 
on  a  trestle.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  cupboard,  the  press,  and  the  armoire 
were  more  nearly  alike.  The  significance  of  the  word  armoire  is  somewhat  obscure, 
and  one  upon  which  writers  on  furniture  are  not  agreed.  Frederick  Roe,  in  his 
book,  Ancient  Coffers  and  Cabinets,  suggests  that  the  original  purpose  of  the 
piece  of  furniture  thus  designated,  was  to  hold  armor. 

During  the  fourteenth  century  the  hall  retained  its  feudal  character.  Life  had 
grown  more  luxurious,  but  the  general  plan  of  the  house  was  unchanged.  In  the 
manor  house  a  "  withdra wing-room "  was  added  to  the  lower  story,  taking  the 

15 


HISTORIC   STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


place  of  the  Norman  parloir.     The  modern  drawing-room  is  an  evolution   of  this 
early  apartment  which  was  primarily  for  the  use  of  the  mistress  of  the  house. 

The  bedroom  was  furnished  with  more  comforts  and  showed  a  greater  change 
than  any  other  portion  of  the  home.  The  bed  had  become  a  bedstead  in  the  usual 
acceptance  of  the  term.  The  original  meaning  of  the  word  "bedstead"  was  "place 
for  a  bed."  During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  except  among  the  opulent, 
sleeping  arrangements  were  very  primitive.  Testers  were  introduced  at  the  time 
of  the  Conquest,  and  "tester  beds,"  or  "tent  beds,"  are  mentioned  by  early  histo- 
rians. During  the  fourteenth  century  the  bedstead  assumed  another  character 
and  was  often  the  most  ornamental  piece  of  furniture  in  the  house.  Some  of  the 
Gothic  beds  suggest  carved  cages,  others  are  fine  examples  of  wood-carving,  and 
show  a  beauty  of  construction  unknown  in  the  canopy  beds  of  a  later  date.  A  fine 
example  of  a  Gothic  bed  is  seen  in  the  bedchamber  of  the  Castle  Meran,  located 
in  the  German  Tyrol.  A  large  portion  of  this  stronghold  dates  from  the  twelfth 
century,  but  the  room  illustrated  here  is  of  a  later  period.  The  doors  and 
windows  show  the  pure  Gothic  arch  and  the  furniture  exhibits  the  simple  tracery 
which  was  such  a  beautiful  feature  of  wood  carving  of  this  period. 

A  new  article  of  furniture  in  the  shape  of  an  elevated  chest,  the  cabinet  of  a 
later  day,  came  into  vogue  about  the  middle  of  the  century  and  was  of  Italian 
origin.  Chairs,  with  the  exception  of  folding-stools,  were  of  huge  proportions,  and 
were  made  more  massive  by  the  addition  of  wooden  canopies.  Tables,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  exceedingly  simple,  and  formed  a  striking  contrast  to  the  rest 
of  household  furniture.  They  were  made  solely  for  utility,  and  outside  of  Italy 
were  overlooked  by  the  decorator.  In  design  they  were  long  and  narrow,  but  the 
trestle  supports  of  the  previous  century  had  given  place  to  more  careful  workman- 
ship. One  form  of  table  was  made  with  the  "bolt  and  slot  construction,"  a  modern 
term  expressing  mediaeval  methods.  This  table  is  chiefly  interesting  inasmuch  as 
it  showrs  how  closely  arts  and  crafts  workers  have  copied  early  designs. 

While  all  handicraft  of  this  period  was  marked  by  beauty  of  design  and  honest 
workmanship  each  country  excelled  in  certain  lines.  The  Italians  led  in  the  han- 
dling of  low  relief  and  in  the  application  of  color  to  ornament.  Their  work,  partic- 
ularly that  of  the  Florentines,  was  characterized  by  great  delicacy  of  feeling.  The 
Germans  were  especially  skilled  in  the  execution  of  elaborate  floral  and  heraldic 
motifs.  The  locks,  hinges,  and  keys  of  cupboards  and  presses  received  as  much 
attention  as  the  carving  of  the  wood,  and  often  formed  an  important  part  of  the 
decoration.  The  French,  from  the  first,  were  a  nation  of  furniture-makers,  and 
although  their  handicraft  lacked  the  exquisite  finish  of  the  Italians  it  fully  equaled 
the  work  of  the  south  in  beauty  of  design. 

The  Swiss  were  adepts  in  wood-carving   and  the  Tyrolese,  in  this  century,  de- 

16 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN  FURNITURE 


FRENCH  CHEST,  LATE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY 

veloped  a  unique  school  of  ornament.  Their  furniture  was  partly  French,  partly 
German  in  character,  and  yet  with  certain  qualities  peculiar  to  itself.  The  Scan- 
dinavians were  masters  of  a  rude  style  of  carving,  half  religious,  half  mythological, 
in  subject.  The  work  of  the  Danes  was  patterned  after  that  of  the  Germans,  as 
was  also  that  of  the  Austrians.  The  Russians,  until  the  beginning  of  the  Romanoff 
dynasty,  followed  Byzantine  canons,  and  the  Poles  and  the  Hungarians  followed 
the  Russians.  The  Dutch  and  the  Flemings  lagged  behind  the  other  nations  in 
the  art  of  furniture-making.  It  was  not  until  the  sixteenth  century  that  they 
equaled  either  the  French  or  the  Germans  in  this  particular.  But  Flemish  and 
Dutch  furniture  remained  beautiful  and  individual  long  after  that  of  the  French 
had  become  exaggerated  and  absurd.  The  Spaniards  never  adopted  the  Gothic 
style  pure  and  simple  in  either  their  home  architecture  or  their  furniture.  Spain, 
at  this  time,  was  a  power  on  the  high  seas,  and  Spanish  woodwork  combined  the 
designs  of  many  countries.  The  Portuguese,  when  not  at  war  with  the  Spaniards, 
copied  them  slavishly.  The  English  selected  the  best  of  all  that  Normandy  and 
Flanders  sent  to  their  shores  and  made  it  their  own. 

The  fourteenth  century  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  domestic  architecture.  The 
religious  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  inspired  by  the  crusades,  was  over,  and  the  zeal 
which  was  previously  lavished  on  churches  was  now  expended  on  dwellings.  The 
origin  of  many  famous  castles  in  England  and  France  may  be  traced  to  this  activity. 

18 


FURNITURE   OF  THE   FOURTEENTH   CENTURY 


GERMAN  CHEST,  LATE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY 

The  rapid  progress  of  home  architecture  was  not  confined  to  the  dwellings  of  the 
nobility.  The  improvement  in  the  houses  of  the  middle  classes  was  no  less  remark- 
able. Hand  in  hand  with  the  outward  betterment  went  an  inward  transforma- 
tion. The  comforts  which  were  known  hitherto  only  in  the  homes  of  the  opulent 
were  now  to  be  found  in  humbler  circles.  Class  distinctions  were  more  sharply 
drawn  ,  but  class  privileges  were  extending.  So  prosperous  did  the  trades-people 
of  Paris  become  that  an  edict  was  passed  by  Charles  the  Fair  limiting  the 
household  possessions  of  half  the  Parisians.  No  bourgeois  could  use  wax  candles 
or  sleep  under  a  canopy  of  gold  Genoa  cloth.  A  similar  law  in  England,  framed 
under  Edward  III,  regulated  the  number  of  tapestries  that  a  merchant  might  hang 
in  his  house  and  the  number  of  yards  of  Flanders  embroidery  his  wife  might  wear 
on  her  gown.  In  England  the  law  was  made  in  order  to  exclude  French  and  Flemish 
merchandise  and  to  compel  the  people  to  patronize  home  industries.  In  France 
it  was  passed  to  hold  in  check  the  growing  ambitions  of  the  trades-people  and  to 
prevent  their  encroaching  on  the  rights  of  their  superiors. 

The  fourteenth  century  was  an  important  one  in  England's  history.  The 
cowardly  Edward  II  was  succeeded  by  the  illustrious  Edward  III,  and  during 
the  latter's  long  reign  events  took  place  at  home  and  abroad  that  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  on  England's  future.  The  victories  of  Cre*cy  and  Poitiers  were  not  more 
memorable  than  certain  acts  of  Parliament;  less  so,  perhaps,  than  that  measure 
passed  in  1362,  which  established  the  English  language  as  the  speech  of  the  nation. 
The  use  of  French  was  discontinued  at  court  and  Norman  customs  went  out  of  fashion. 

19 


HISTORIC   STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


The  long  siege  with  France 
had  brought  about  a  reaction 
in  favor  of  English  produc- 
tions. Edward's  marriage  to 
Philippa  of  Hainault  had 
strengthened  the  tie  between 
England  and  Flanders,  but 
as  the  war  across  the  channel 
progressed,  and  the  Flemings 
were  drawn  into  the  conflict, 
TYROLEAN  TABLE  this  friendship  cooled.  Com- 

merce ceased  with    Flanders 

and  the  king  framed  laws  to  prevent  the  sale  of  Flemish  articles.  These  royal  edicts 
fostered  the  home  arts,  and  English  houses  were  furnished  with  home-made  articles. 
Many  of  the  finest  baronial  halls  of  England  and  Scotland  were  built  in  part 
during  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Savoy  Castle  on  the  Thames,  erected  by  the  earl 
of  Richmond  in  1245,  was  remodeled  a  century  later  by  the  first  duke  of  Lancaster 
who  spent  a  fortune  on  it.  Here,  after  the  battle  of  Poitiers,  resided  the  captive 
king,  John  of  France,  here  came  on  many  occasions  that  idol  of  the  people,  the 
Black  Prince,  and  here  Chaucer  lived  for  a  year  as  the  guest  of  John  of  Gaunt  and 
his  wife,  the  young  duchess  of  Lancaster.  Chaucer  composed  many  of  his  most 
famous  poems  at  Savoy,  and  met  within  its  doors  the  fair  Lady  Philippa,  whom  he 
afterward  married.  John  of  Gaunt  maintained  a  style  of  living  surpassed  only 
by  that  of  the  royal  family.  The  tapestries,  furniture,  paintings,  and  plate  of  Savoy 
were,  according  to  an  old  writer,  "as  fine  as  anything  in  Christendom."  Part  of 
the  architecture  of  Haddon  Hall  is  late  fourteenth  century.  The  great  banquet- 
room  still  retains  its  Gothic  woodwork  and  its  traceried  windows,  built  by  the 
Vernons,  who  owned  the  estate  at  that  time.  Lynes  in  Cheshire,  erected  on  ground 
granted  by  the  king  to  Sir  Petryn  Leigh,  for  valor  displayed  at  Crecy,  is  a  stately 
pile,  and  has  preserved  something  of  its  first  semblance.  Cotehile  in  Cornwall, 
Glamis  in  Scotland,  and  Norworth  Castle  on  the  Border,  the  latter  first  occupied 
by  Percy  Hotspur,  the  hero  of  Chevy  Chase,  all  trace  their  grim  walls  and  grim 
histories  to  the  time  of  the  third  Edward.  Hardly  less  renowned  is  Sizergh  Hall 
in  Westmoreland,  bearing  on  its  crenelated  tower  a  sculptured  shield  with  the 
quarterings  of  the  d'Aincourts  and  the  Stricklands.  This  bit  of  English  heraldry 
is  unusual,  as  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  examples  of  the  placing  of  the  arms  of  the 
wife  before  those  of  her  husband — a  custom  unknown  before  the  fourteenth  century. 
Sizergh  Hall  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign  was  famous  for  its  beautiful  woodwork  and 
furniture.  The  paneling  of  one  room  in  this  old  castle  is  now  in  the  Kensington 

20 


FURNITURE   OF  THE   FOURTEENTH  CENTURY 


Museum,  and  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  examples 
of  its  day. 

In  Penshurst,  near  Tunbridge  Wells,  the  great 
entrance  hall  has  not  been  altered  since  it  was 
built  by  Sir  John  de  Poulteney  who  was  four 
times  lord  mayor  of  London,  and  who  was  noted 
"for  his  public  charities,  magnificent  housekeep- 
ing, and  splendid  achievements."  From  Sir  John 
it  passed  to  the  duke  of  Bedford,  then  to  the 
duke  of  Gloucester,  and  later  to  Buckingham.  In 
1447  it  became  the  property  of  the  crown,  was 
bestowed  upon  Sir  William  Sydney  by  Edward  VI., 
after  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field,  and  descended 
from  him  to  Sir  Philip  Sydney,  with  whose  name 
the  fame  of  Penshurst  is  chiefly  associated.  Many 
descriptions  of  the  ancient  hall  have  been  given. 
"The  pointed  timbered  roof  is  supported  by  a 
series  of  grotesque  corbels,  each  the  size  of  life," 
says  a  writer  of  the  early  eighteenth  century. 
"  The  screen  of  the  gallery  is  richly  carved  and 
paneled.  The  minstrel's  gallery  fills  the  side  op- 
posite the  da'is.  The  Gothic  windows  are  narrow 
and  lofty.  Every  object  calls  to  mind  a  feudal 
age.  The  oak  tables  on  which  retainers  feasted 
still  occupy  the  hall/,' 

In  striking  contrast  to  this  English  interior  of 
the  fourteenth  century  is  M.  SauvaFs  description 
of  an  apartment  in  the  Hotel  de  Boheme,  erected 
by  Charles  V  and  occupied  in  1388  by  the  duke 
of  Orleans.  "I  shall  not  attempt,"  he  writes,  "to 
speak  of  the  cellars  and  wine-cellars,  the  bake- 
houses, the  fruiteries,  the  salt-stores,  the  fur-rooms, 
the  porters'  lodges,  the  guard-rooms,  the  wood- 
yard,  or  the  glass-stores ;  neither  shall  I  describe  the 
tapestry-room,  the  linen-room,  nor  indeed  any  of  the 
various  conveniences  which  were  then  to  be  found 
in  the  yards  of  this  place,  as  well  as  in  the  abodes 
of  other  princes  and  nobles.  I  shall  simply  remark 
that,  among  the  many  suites  of  rooms  which  com- 

21 


TYROLEAN  CUPBOARD,  LATE  FOUR- 
TEENTH CENTURY 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


posed  it,  two  occupied  the  first  and  second  stories  of  the  main  building.  The  first 
was  raised  some  few  feet  above  the  ground  floor  of  the  court,  and  was  occupied  by 
Violet  of  Milan  and  her  husband,  Louis  of  Orleans.  Each  of  these  two  suites  of 
rooms  consisted  of  a  great  hall,  a  chamber  of  state,  a  large  chamber,  a  wardrobe- 
room,  and  a  chapel.  The  state  chambers  were  eight  toises,  that  is,  about  fifty  and 
a  half  feet  long.  The  duke's  chambers  were  six  toises  and  a  half  square,  and  lighted 
by  long  and  narrow  windows  of  wire  work,  with  Gothic  trellis  work  of  iron.  The 
wainscots  and  the  ceilings  were  made  of  Irish  wood,  the  same  as  in  the  Louvre. 
Among  the  ornamental  furniture  were  a  large  vase  of  silver  for  holding  sweetmeats 
and  a  fine  wooden  casket  covered  with  vermilion  cordovan,  nailed  and  bordered 
with  a  narrow  gold  band  and  shutting  with  a  key." 

The  ancient  chronicle  of  M.  Sauval  would  be  incomplete  without  a  reference 
to  the  gorgeous  Spanish  leathers  in  Boheme.  "In  this  palace,"  he  continues,  "there 
was  a  room  used  by  the  duke,  hung  with  cloth  of  gold  bordered  with  vermilion 
velvet,  embroidered  with  roses.  The  duchess  had  a  room  hung  with  vermilion 
leather  decorated  with  cross-bows,  wrhich  were  her  coat  of  arms.  That  of  the  duke 
of  Burgundy  was  hung  with  cloth  of  gold,  embroidered  with  windmills.  There  were, 
besides,  eight  carpets  of  glossy  texture,  with  gold  flowers,  one  representing  the 
seven  virtues  and  seven  vices,  another  the  history  of  Charlemagne,  another  that 
of  Saint  Louis.  There  were  also  cushions  of  gold,  twenty-four  pieces  of  vermilion 
leather  of  Aragon,  and  four  carpets  of  Aragon  leather." 

Few  descriptions  of  the  homes  of  the  people  are  on  record.  Litchfield, 
in  writing  of  a  French  house  of  this  period,  states  that  chests,  more  or  less 
carved  and  ornamented  with  iron  work,  settles  of  oak  and  chestnut,  stools  or 
benches  with  carved  supports,  a  bedstead  and  a  prie-dieu  chair,  and  a  table  with  a 
plain  slab,  supported  on  standards,  would  nearly  complete  the  furniture  of  the  chief 
room  in  the  house  of  a  well-to-do  merchant. 


22 


CHAPTER  III 

FURNITURE  OF  THE   FIFTEENTH  CENTURY 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE  I  THE  LATE  GOTHIC  ARCH,  THE  QUA- 
TREFOIL,  THE  CINQUEFOIL,  AND  A  MORE  COMPLICATED  SCHEME 
OF  CARVING.  FURNITURE  SHOWED  GRACEFUL  OUTLINES,  BUT 
TOWARD  THE  END  OF  THE  CENTURY.  BECAME  TOO  HEAVILY 
ORNAMENTED  FOR  BEAUTY.  ANIMALS  AND  GROTESQUE  HEADS 
WERE  COMBINED  WITH  GOTHIC  DETAILS  AND  THE  CHARM  OF 
THE  EARLIER  PIECES  VANISHED. 


CHAPTER    III 

FURNITURE   OF   THE   FIFTEENTH   CENTURY 

THE  fifteenth  century  was  a  period  of  transition.  It  marked  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  the  beginning  of  modern  history.  The  keep,  the  draw- 
bridge, the  embattled  tower,  had  no  part  in  the  architecture  of  the  day, 
and  with  their  passing  the  mode  of  living  was  greatly  altered.  The  hall 
ceased  to  be  the  point  about  which  the  life  of  the  house  centered.  It  was  no  longer 
the  scene  of  activity.  The  dais,  the  minstrels'  gallery,  the  long  tables  for  the  re- 
tainers, lost  their  significance.  Dining  in  public  went  out  of  fashion.  The  lord 
of  the  manor  added  a  room  to  the  great  hall  and  dined  with  his  family  in  privacy. 
Life  was  more  luxurious,  but  less  picturesque  than  in  an  earlier  and  ruder  age. 

The  century  that  witnessed  the  waning  of  medievalism  was  one  of  great  progress. 
The  invention  of  gunpowder  revolutionized  war,  that  of  the  compass  increased 
navigation,  and  that  of  printing  ushered  in  the  dawn  of  a  new  era.  It  was  an  epoch 
of  stirring  events  that  included  the  wars  of  the  Roses,  the  conquest  of  Granada, 
the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain,  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  and  the 
discovery  of  America. 

Architecturally  the  fifteenth  century  had  less  to  its  credit  than  the  fourteenth. 
Houses  embodied  the  characteristics  of  the  late  Gothic,  and  while  there  was  a 
greater  variety  of  material  used  than  at  any  previous  time  buildings  showed 
less  constructive  skill.  • 

The  chateau  of  Langeais,  the  Cluny,  and  the  famous  house  of  Jacques  Coeur  at 
Bourges,  are  typical  French  dwellings  of  this  period.  Hurstmonceaux  Hall,  in 
Sussex,  erected  by  Sir  Roger  Fiennes,  treasurer  of  the  household  under  Henry  VI, 
and  Tattershall  Castle,  in  Lincolnshire,  built  by  Ralph,  Lord  Cromwell,  treasurer 
of  the  exchequer  under  the  same  sovereign,  are  notable  examples  of  English  archi- 
tecture of  the  day.  Both  are  of  Flemish  brick,  with  stone  trimmings  and  were  the 
first  mansions  built  in  England  of  this  material.  Houses  of  this  age  were  not 
distinctive  types.  They  were  links  between  the  fortified  buildings  of  feudal 
times  and  the  more  comfortable  homes  of  the  Renaissance,  and  are  chiefly  inter- 
esting from  the  historical  point  of  view. 

The  furniture  of  the  early  fifteenth  century  did  not  differ  materially  from  that 
of  the  fourteenth.  Designs  remained  strong  and  simple  and  ornament  was  a  means, 
not  an  end.  But  the  day  of  Gothic  simplicity  was  nearly  over,  and  by  the  middle 
of  the  century  the  fate  that  had  overtaken  the  architects  pursued  the  furniture- 

25 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


makers.     Ornament  was  piled  upon  ornament  until  the  original  beauty  was  entirely 
effaced.     Skill  of  hand  remained;  the  brain  back  of  the  hand  had  deteriorated. 

A  waving  form  of  ornament  resembling  a  tongue  of  flame  supplanted  the  geomet- 
rical tracery,  while  cinquefoils  took  the  place  of  the  earlier  trefoils  and  quatrefoils. 
This  flaming  motive  had  dominated  church  architecture,  to  its  great  detriment, 

for  more  than  a  hundred  years  and 
had  given  rise  to  the  terms,  Flam- 
boyant, in  France.  Flowing,  in  Eng- 
land, and  Fischblase,  in  Germany. 
Wood-carvers  sought  to  surpass  each 
other  in  the  elaboration  of  this  theme, 
and  in  fantastic  combinations  of 
foliage,  grotesque  animals,  and  figures. 
Chairs  more  than  any  other  pieces 
of  furniture  suffered  at  the  hands  of 
the  artisan.  Built  on  severe  lines 
they  were  little  adapted  for  the  over- 
loaded system  of  decoration.  Chests 
and  cupboards,  while  lacking  the  sim- 
plicity which  had  hitherto  been  their 
chief  charm,  were  by  their  construc- 
tion less  injured  by  complicated  orna- 
ment. Many  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  fifteenth-century  woodwork  were  in 
the  form  of  presses  and  cupboards. 
Bedsteads  were  too  cumbersome  in 
design,  and,  except  in  the  homes  of 
the  lower  classes,  too  ornate  to  be 
interesting.  Tables  had  altered  little  in  shape  or  purpose  and  were  the  sole  articles 
of  furniture  to  conform  to  severe  lines  and  to  unadorned  surfaces. 

It  was  an  age  of  exaggeration  in  furniture  and  scarcely  less  so  in  dress.  The 
pointed  cap,  so  long  a  feature  of  medieval  fashion,  rose  to  enormous  heights,  and 
shoes  were  so  elongated  that  walking  with  ease  became  a  fine  art.  At  the  French 
court,  ladies  in  formal  attire  could  not  pass  through  an  ordinary  doorway  without 
lowering  their  heads,  and  the  followers  of  Charles  VII  were  obliged  to  walk  three 
feet  apart  in  order  to  have  sufficient  space  for  the  long  and  tortuous  points  of  their 
shoes. 

The  resemblance  between  the  architecture  and  the  furniture  of  historic  periods, 
is  plainly  discernible.     The  similarity  that  costumes  bear  to  both  might  also  be 


ENGLISH   MONASTERY    CHAIR,  FIFTEENTH    CENTURY 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


cited.  Many  parallels  could  be  drawn  between  Louis  XIV  furniture  and  the 
gorgeous  dress  of  that  day,  between  the  more  ornate  furniture  of  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV  and  the  greater  extravagance  in  fashions,  between  the  simpler  Louis  XVI 

furniture  and  the  return  of  the  French 
court  under  Marie  Antoinette  to  a  more 
refined  mode  of  dress,  between  the 
classical  furniture  of  Napoleon's  time 
and  the  severe  gowns  of  the  empire, 
and  between  the  stately  furniture  of 
the  colonial  period  and  the  equally 
stately  costumes.  So  long  as  the 
pointed  arch  remained  a  vital  force  in 
architecture,  furniture  and  dress  re- 
flected in  a  greater  or  less  degree  Gothic 
principles.  This  period  included  three 
centuries  and  might  well  be  called  the 
Pointed  Age. 

No  strikingly  novel  pieces  of  furni- 
ture were  evolved  during  the  fifteenth 
century.  New  methods  entered  into 
construction  and  new  effects  were 
gained  by  combining  different  woods. 
English  and  German  oak,  French  chest- 
nut, Italian  walnut,  and  Spanish  cypress 
had  long  been  famous,  but  their  use 
was  confined  largely  to  the  countries  in 
wrhich  they  were  produced.  But  now 
woods  were  imported  extensively,  and 
we  find  Spanish  cabinet-makers  experi- 
menting in  the  walnut  of  Italy,  Italian 
artisans  using  the  olive  and  cypress  of 
Spain,  French  furniture-makers  turning 
to  Flanders  and  England  for  oak,  and 
to  the  southern  countries  for  the 

softer  woods,  and  English  workmen,  while  clinging  mainly  to  oak,  adding  French 
chestnut  and  Spanish  olive  and  cypress. 

Italian  walnut  was  as  hard  as  oak  and  almost  as  enduring.  Many  of  the  choicest 
examples  of  the  cabinet  work  of  this  period,  found  in  museums  and  private  collec- 
tions, are  in  this  beautiful  dark  wood.  It  was  better  adapted  than  oak  for  the 

28 


FRENCH    GOTHIC    PANEL 


FLEMISH   CUPBOARD 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


lighter  pieces  of  furniture,  and  its  exquisite  grain  yielded  a  more  graceful  form 
of  ornament.  In  the  hands  of  the  Italian  and  Spanish  craftsmen  it  became  an 
ideal  medium. 

In  Florence  and  Vargos  were  fashioned  those  chests  and  cupboards  which  placed 
the  work  of  the  south  so  far  above  that  of  the  north.  The  Florentines  had  long 
demonstrated  their  ability,  and  in  this  century  the  people  of  Vargos  nearly  equaled 
them.  Vargueno  furniture  was  as  celebrated  as  Cordovan  leather. 

Flamboyant  architecture  had  made  little  progress  in  Spain  and  Spanish  furni- 
ture was  free  from  the  absurdities  found  in  the  furniture  of  the  north.  Moorish 
traditions  were  deeply  rooted  and  designs  exhibited  Saracenic  rather  than  Gothic 
influence.  Gothic  motifs  were  not  entirely  absent,  but  they  were  largely  over- 
shadowed by  the  richer  ornament  of  the  east.  Spain  was  the  only  European 
country  that  did  not  yield  to  the  spell  of  the  pointed  arch.  This  worked  for  good 
in  the  fifteenth  century  when  all  other  nations  except  Italy  were  well-nigh 
engulfed  in  Gothic  detail. 

With  the  exception  of  the  English  monastery  chair  the  pieces  of  furniture 
illustrated  in  this  chapter  are  early  fifteenth  century.  The  cupboard  is  of  oak  and 
is  a  typical  example  of  Flemish  handiwork.  The  carving  shows  the  late  Gothic 
arch,  and  the  tracery  is  more  compact  than  in  earlier  pieces  of  furniture.  By  the 
treatment  of  the  arch  the  date  of  an  article  may  be  determined.  Furniture  fol- 
lowed closely  on  architectural  lines,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  when  windows 
and  doors  showed  changes  in  construction,  cabinets  and  chairs  exhibited  similar 
tendencies.  The  difference  set  forth  in  the  construction  of  a  room  may  be  seen 
in  the  Tyrolean  interiors.  The  doors  and  windows  in  the  bedchamber  of  the 
castle  Meran,  illustrated  in  the  preceding  chapter,  are  in  the  earlier  style.  The 
anteroom  reproduced  in  this  chapter  shows  the  later  treatment  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  small  door. 

The  Tyrolese  more  than  any  other  people  of  Europe  have  clung  to  the  customs 
of  their  ancestors.  Prominent  in  the  affairs  of  Italy  and  Switzerland  during  the 
Middle  Ages  they  have  had  in  modern  times  little  part  in  the  political  warfare  of 
their  neighbors.  Favored  by  an  isolated  situation  they  have  been  undisturbed 
by  the  march  of  civilization.  In  manners,  in  dress,  in  their  home  life  they  have 
retained  the  traditions  of  an  earlier  age. 

During  mediaeval  times  the  Tyrol  was  alternately  occupied  by  the  French  and 
the  Germans,  and  architecture  and  furniture  combine  both  French  and  German 
tendencies.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the  fine  old  castles  that  cling  to  the  mountain 
tops  and  make  this  country  one  of  the  most  picturesque  in  Europe.  These 
feudal  strongholds  passed  from  one  conquering  baron  to  another.  The  schloss  of 
one  decade  became  the  chateau  of  the  next. 

30 


ANTEROOM,    CASTLE   MEBAN,   GERMAN   TYROL,    SHOWING  THE   EARLY   AND   THE   LATE 

GOTHIC   ARCH 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


Near  the  village  of  Meran  stands  the  castle  of  that  name,  dating  back  to  the 
twelfth  century.  The  exterior  has  undergone  many  changes,  but  the  interior  has 
been  little  altered.  The  paneling,  the  mural  decorations,  and  the  traceried  windows 
are  early  Gothic;  the  furniture  and  the  tapestries  belong  to  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries.  The  furniture  is  particularly  fine  and  consists  of  chests 
mounted  with  iron,  presses  and  cabinets  ornamented  with  hinges  and  locks  of 
copper,  long  tables  without  decoration,  and  many  beautiful  chairs.  The  latter 
are  similar  to  the  old  Roman  curules,  and  unlike  English  chairs  of  this  period, 
with  their  high  backs  and  ponderous  carving.  A  chair  of  this  type  is  shown 
in  the  anteroom  of  Meran  illustrated  on  page  31.  The  furniture  of  this  old  castle 
represents  the  best  of  the  late  Gothic  school. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  a  great  change  took  place  in  handi- 
craft. A  new  force  born  in  Italy  gradually  spread  throughout  Europe.  Gothic 
art  was  not  uprooted  in  a  day,  and  a  period  of  confusion  in  design  followed,  in 
which  the  old  forms  were  combined  with  the  new  principles  of  the  Renaissance. 


CHAPTER  IV 

FURNITURE  OF  THE   ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE.  DURING  THE  TRANSITIONAL  PERIOD 
CLASSIC  DETAILS  WERE  COMBINED  WITH  GOTHIC  CONSTRUCTION. 
LATER  THE  PURE  RENAISSANCE  WAS  ESTABLISHED.  WOOD-CARVERS 
ADAPTED  THE  PRINCIPAL  MOTIFS  OF  THE  DAY  WHICH  CONSISTED 
OF  FOLIAGE  BANDED  WITH  RIBBON,  SWAGS  OF  FRUIT  AND  FLOW- 
ERS, THE  ACANTHUS  LEAF,  AND  THE  ARABESQUE.  FURNITURE 
BECAME  MORE  VARIED  IN  DESIGN  AND  WAS  AUGMENTED  BY  MANY 
PIECES  UNKNOWN  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 


CHAPTER    IV 

FURNITURE   OF   THE    ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE 

«  T"  N  the  work  of  the  Renaissance,"  writes  John  Addington  Symonds,  "all  the 
I  great  nations  of  Europe  shared.  But  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  the 
-*-  true  Renaissance  began  in  Italy.  In  art,  in  scholarship,  in  science,  hi  the 
mediation  between  antique  culture  and  the  modern  intellect,  the  Italians  took 
the  lead,  handing  to  Germany  and  France  and  England  the  restored  humani- 
ties complete.  Spain  and  England  have  since  done  more  for  the  exploration  and 
colonization  of  the  world.  Germany  achieved  the  labor  of  the  Reformation  almost 
single-handed.  France  has  collected,  centralized,  and  diffused  intelligence  with 
irresistible  energy.  But  if  we  return  to  the  first  origins  of  the  Renaissance,  we 
find  that,  at  a  time  when  the  rest  of  Europe  was  inert,  Italy  had  already  begun  to 
organize  the  various  elements  of  the  modern  spirit,  and  to  set  the  fashions  whereby 

the  other  great  nations  should  live  and  learn 

"  We  cannot  refer  the  whole  phenomena  of  the  Renaissance  to  any  one  cause 
or  circumstance,  or  limit  them  within  the  field  of  any  one  department  of  human 
knowledge.  If  we  ask  the  students  of  art  what  they  mean  by  the  Renaissance, 
they  will  reply  that  it  was  the  revolution  effected  in  architecture,  painting,  and 
sculpture  by  the  recovery  of  antique  monuments.  Students  of  literature,  philos- 
ophy, and  theology  see  in  the  Renaissance  that  discovery  of  manuscripts,  that 
passion  for  antiquity,  that  progress  in  philology  and  criticism,  which  led  to  a  correct 
knowledge  of  the  classics,  to  a  fresh  taste  in  poetry,  to  new  systems  of  thought, 
to  more  accurate  analysis,  and  finally  to  the  Lutheran  schism  and  the  emancipation 
of  the  conscience.  Men  of  science  will  discourse  about  the  discovery  of  the  solar 
system  by  Copernicus  and  Galileo,  the  anatomy  of  Vesalius,  and  Harvey's  theory 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  political  historian,  again,  has  his  own  answer 
to  the  question.  The  extinction  of  feudalism,  the  development  of  the  great  nation- 
alities of  Europe,  the  growth  of  monarchy,  the  limitation  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authority,  and  the  erection  of  the  papacy  into  an  Italian  kingdom,  and,  in  the 
last  place,  the  gradual  emergence  of  that  sense  of  popular  freedom  which  exploded 
in  the  Revolution — these  are  the  aspects  of  the  movement  which  engross  his  atten- 
tion. Jurists  will  describe  the  dissolution  of  legal  frictions  based  upon  the  false 
decretals,  the  acquisition  of  a  true  text  of  the  Roman  Code,  and  the  attempt  to 
introduce  a  rational  method  into  the  theory  of  modern  jurisprudence.  Men  whose 
attention  has  been  turned  to  the  history  of  discoveries  and  inventions  will  relate 

35 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


SIXTEENTH-CENTURY    CHEST    OF    DRAWERS,    LUCCA 


the  exploration  of  America  and 
the  East,  or  will  point  out  the 
benefits  conferred  upon  the 
world  by  the  arts  of  printing 
and  engraving,  by  the  compass 
and  the  telescope,  by  paper 
and  by  gunpowder.  Yet  neither 
any  one  of  these  answers,  taken 
separately,  nor  indeed  all  taken 
together,  will  offer  a  solution  of 
the  problem. 

"By  the  term  Renaissance, 
or  new  birth,  is  indicated  a 
natural  movement,  not  to  be 
explained  by  this  or  that  char- 
acteristic, but  to  be  accepted 
as  an  effort  of  humanity  for 
which  at  length  the  time  had  come,  and  in  the  onward  progress  of  which  we  still 
participate.  The  history  of  the  Renaissance  is  not  the  history  of  arts,  or  of 
sciences,  or  of  literature,  or  even  of  nations.  It  is  no  mere  political  mutation, 
no  new  fashion  of  art,  no  restoration  of  classical  standards  of  taste.  The 
arts  and  the  inventions,  the  knowledge  and  the  books,  which  suddenly  became 
vital  at  the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  had  long  lain  neglected  on  the  shores  of  the 
Dead  Sea  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  not  their  discovery  which  caused  the  Renais- 
sance. It  was  the  intellectual  energy,  the  spontaneous  outburst  of  intelligence, 
which  enabled  mankind  at  that  moment  to  make  use  of  them." 

Broadly  speaking,  the  Renaissance  had  three  distinct  styles:  The  tre-cento, 
quatro-cento,  and  cinque-cento.  The  first  was  developed  between  the  years  1300 
and  1400  and  its  influence  was  confined  to  architecture  and  sculpture.  Giotto, 
Arnolfo  di  Gambia,  Andrea  Taffi  Orcagna,  and  Nicolo  Pisano  were  its  chief  ex- 
ponents. The  quatro-cento  belonged  to  the  fifteenth  century  and  was  a  more 
classic  style  than  its  predecessors.  The  work  of  Luca  della  Robbia,  of  Donatello 
and  Ghiberti,  and  of  Filippo  Brunelleschi  are  magnificent  examples  of  the  second 
division.  The  cinque-cento  was  the  culmination  of  the  art  of  the  Renaissance 
and  is  associated  with  the  mighty  names  of  da  Vinci,  Raphael,  and  Michaelangelo. 
The  former  styles  were  but  preparation  for  the  architecture,  sculpture,  painting, 
and  decorative  arts  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Under  the  patronage  of  the  popes 
and  the  powerful  Medici  family,  pictures  were  painted,  statues  carved,  tapestries 
woven,  metals  wrought,  in  a  manner  that  the  world  had  never  seen  before. 

36 


FURNITURE   OF   THE    ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE 


"  During  that  period,"  to  quote  from  Symonds  again,  "the  entire  nation  seemed 
to  be  endowed  with  an  instinct  for  the  beautiful  and  with  the  capacity  for  pro- 
ducing it  in  every  form." 

No  article  was  too  commonplace  to  receive  the  attention  of  great  artists.  The 
same  care  that  was  expended  on  the  facade  of  a  cathedral  or  the  interior  of  a  palace 
was  bestowed  on  the  simplest  piece  of  woodwork.  The  carved  chairs,  the  painted 
chests,  and  the  inlaid  cabinets  all  show  that  perfection  of  detail  which  characterized 
the  boldest  undertakings.  It  was  this  wonderful  ensemble,  this  linking  of  the  fine 
and  decorative  arts,  that  made  the  Renaissance  the  golden  age  of  achievement. 

It  was  not  until  the  cinque-cento  period  that  furniture  showed  traces  of  the 
classic  revival.  Wood-workers 
clung  to  Gothic  designs  long 
after  stone-cutters  had  dis- 
carded them.  Thus  some  of 
the  tre-cento  and  quatro-cento 
motifs  are  exhibited  in  the  furni- 
ture of  the  sixteenth  century. 
It  is  well  in  studying  the  wood- 
work of  this  epoch  to  keep  in 
mind  the  leading  features  of  the 
three  styles.  The  tre-cento  con- 
sisted of  interlacing  lines  com- 
bined with  simple  tracery  and 
conventionalized  foliage.  The 
tracery  was  Saracenic  rather 
than  Gothic,  and  entirely  free 
from  symbolism.  The  quatro- 
cento  blended  the  festoon,  the 
garland,  the  band,  and  the  car- 
touche with  naturalistic  fruit 
and  flowers.  The  cinque-cento 
was  a  restoration  of  classic  de- 
tails and  included  the  fret,  the 
arabesque,  the  anthemion,  the 
scroll,  and  the  acanthus.  The 
arabesque  or  grotesque,  as  it 
was  termed  from  its  discovery 
in  a  Roman  grotto,  was  com- 
posed of  vases,  shields,  masks,  SIXTEENTH-CENTURY  CABINET,  LUCCA 

37 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN    FURNITURE 


ANTEROOM   CHAIR   OF  WALNUT 


animal  forms,  and  floral  emblems.  Sym- 
metry, balance,  and  perfect  propor- 
tions, united  with  faultless  execution, 
saved  the  arabesque  from  becoming  a 
grotesque  in  both  senses  of  the  word. 
In  the  hands  of  Raphael,  Giulio  Ro- 
mano, Sansovino,  and  the  Lombardi, 
this  type  of  ornament  reached  a  high 
degree  of  beauty.  Raphael's  work  in 
the  loggia  of  the  Vatican  is  a  splendid 
example  of  the  arabesque. 

Woodworkers  adapted  these  three 
styles  to  the  furniture  of  the  day,  and 
it  is  to  their  credit  that  they  produced 
harmony,  and  not  confusion.  The 
backs  of  chairs  did  not  resemble  palace 
doors,  nor  did  the  columns  of  cabinets 
suggest  Greek  colonnades.  There  was  a 
fine  sense  of  fitness  between  the  object 
and  its  ornament.  Herein  was  a  vast 
difference  between  the  handiwork  of 
the  Renaissance  and  that  of  the  Gothic 
period.  Gothic  furniture  as  a  whole 
was  oppressively  architectural.  The 
lids  of  chests  and  the  doors  of  cup- 
boards were  often  church  facades  in 
miniature;  and  the  finials  of  chairs  and 
settles  diminutive  church  spires.  Gothic 
art  was  ecclesiastical  rather  than  secu- 
lar, and  Gothic  furniture,  with  few 
exceptions,  was  fitted  for  monasteries 
rather  than  homes. 

The  Renaissance  raised  furniture- 
making  to  an  art.  Pupils  wrere  appren- 
ticed to  a  master  and  studied  with  him 
until  they  had  perfected  their  craft, 
when  they  opened  workshops  of  their 
own.  The  pieces  produced  in  these 
great  studio-shops  united  beauty  with 


38 


FURNITURE    OF   THE   ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE 


utility.  For  the  first  time  designs  were 
made  with  reference  to  their  setting. 
The  furniture  of  the  private  dwelling 
was  suggestive  of  neither  cathedrals 
nor  abbeys.  It  was  made  with  a  care- 
ful regard  for  the  needs  of  the  owner, 
his  station  and  manner  of  living.  Thus 
houses  possessed  a  harmony  which  had 
hitherto  been  absent. 

The  arrangement  of  furniture  was 
greatly  altered.  Chairs  and  chests  were 
no  longer  placed  stiffly  against  the 
walls.  According  to  one  old  writer 
the  sixteenth  century  loosened  the  furni- 
ture from  the  side  of  the  room,  and 
distributed  it  "here  and  there  in  the 
manner  agreeable  to  modern  taste." 
With  its  changed  position  came  a 
change  in  the  construction  and  charac- 
ter of  each  article.  The  cabinet  became 
a  cabinet  in  the  modern  meaning  of  the 
word.  It  was  no  longer  a  press  or  a 
cupboard.  The  table  lost  its  severe 
lines  and  plain  surfaces,  and  developed 
into  an  ornamental  piece  of  furniture. 
Wood-carvers,  as  if  'to  atone  for  past 
neglect,  lavished  their  highest  skill  upon 
it.  The  chair  was  completely  trans- 
formed. It  refused  to  be  classified 
under  one  or  two  heads.  There  was 
the  chair  for  the  hall,  the  dining-room, 
and  the  bedchamber.  It  was  impos- 
ing, simple,  massive,  or  graceful,  as  the 
occasion  demanded.  The  upholstered 
seat  was  introduced  during  this  period. 
Hitherto  chair  cushions  were  movable; 
they  were  now  a  part  of  the  frame.  This 
was  a  radical  change  and  gave  rise  to 
a  new  class  of  workmen — upholsterers. 


GOTHIC    CHAIR   WITH    RENAISSANCE    DETAILS, 
PARMA  MUSEUM,  TRANSITIONAL  PERIOD 


39 


BEDCHAMBER    IN   THE    VINCIGLIATA,   FIESOLE 

Among  the  sixteenth-century  pieces  of  furniture  which  were  unknown  at  an 
earlier  date  was  the  sideboard.  The  credence  and  the  dresser  have  been 
mentioned.  The  sideboard  was  longer  and  lower  than  these  mediaeval  pieces  and 
without  shelves.  One  of  the  earliest  references  to  the  sideboard  is  in  the  journal 
of  Benvenuto  Cellini.  To  this  prince,  of  silversmiths  we  are  indebted  for  many 
picturesque  glimpses.  .  Sometimes  it  is  an  interview  with  Michaelangelo,  some- 
times a  visit  to  the  pope,  sometimes  a  line  about  a  piece  of  furniture.  "Meanwhile 
I  contrived,  by  means  of  a  pupil  of  Raffaello  da  Urbino,  to  get  an  order  for  one  of 
those  great  water-vessels  called  acquereccia,  which  are  used  for  ornaments  to  place 
on  a  sideboard.  He  wanted  a  pair  made  of  equal  size.  One  of  them  he  intrusted 
to  Lucagnolo  and  the  other  to  me." 

Another  writer  of  the  same  period  says  in  a  letter:  "  When  I  entered  the  house 
of  Maestro  Giovanni,  of  whom  I  may  have  spoken,  I  was  given  bread  and  wine 
from  the  sideboard  and  pressed  to  lodge  for  the  night."  In  this  letter  is  a  second 
reference  of  interest.  "On  my  way  out  of  the  city,  I  fell  in  with  three  youths 
whom  I  thought  to  be  students.  Two  were  weavers  from  Palermo,  and  the  third  a 

40 


STATE    DINING-ROOM    IN    THE    VINCIGLIATA,    FIESOLE 

wood-carver  on  his  way  to  the  palace  to  receive  orders  for  a  marriage-coffer.  I 
hoped  to  learn  more_erf  his  errand,  but  he  talked  little,  and  refused  to  tarry  for  wine." 
Unfortunately  the  letter  gives  no  clue  to  the  palace  nor  to  the  noble  lady  for 
whom  the  coffer  was  intended. 

In  the  list  of  new  furniture  was  the  chest  of  drawers.  This  was  placed  in  the 
bedchamber  and  was  the  forerunner  of  the  bureau.  During  the  sixteenth  century 
the  bed  took  on  a  new  form.  The  massive  Gothic  bed  was  no  longer  tolerated. 
A  lighter,  more  movable  structure  superseded  it.  Slender  columns  upheld  a  canopy 
of  brocade  or  tapestry,  and  curtains  of  similar  material  inclosed  the  sides.  The 
Renaissance  bed  was  not  a  four-poster  in  the  colonial  acceptance  of  the  word,  for 
the  back  was  completely  encased  in  wood.  This  headboard,  if  such  it  may  be 
called,  was  richly  carved,  and  occasionally  displayed  the  arms  and  insignia  of  the 
family.  The  bed  in  the  chamber  of  the  Vincigliata,  here  illustrated,  has  exquis- 
itely carved  figures,  in  place  of  lower  columns. 

Bedrooms  of  this  period  were  more  comfortable  than  they  had  been  at  any 
previous  time.  Panes  of  glass  were  no  longer  a  luxury.  With  larger  windows  came 

41 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


more  light  and  better  ventilation.  A  brighter,  happier  atmosphere  was  the  result. 
This  changed  condition  was  not  confined  to  the  upper  story.  The  lower  part  of 
the  house  was  equally  transformed.  The  shadowy  corners,  the  dimly  lighted  stair- 
cases, and  the  dark  passageways  were  of  the  past.  The  perpetual  twilight  of  the 
medieval  dwelling  gave  place  to  the  sunshine  of  the  Renaissance. 

Among  the  host  of  articles  which  added  to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the 
Italian  house  were  clocks,  mirrors,  and  screens.  Clocks  were  not  the  invention  of 
this  century,  but  they  were  little  used  until  this  period.  They  were  of  small  dimen- 
sions, elaborated,  incased  in  metal,  and  sometimes  ornamented  with  pietra-dura — 
an  inlay  of  ivory,  horn,  mother-of-pearl,  and  lapis  lazuli.  Screens  were  of  stamped 
and  painted  leather,  and  were  usually  imported  from  Spain.  Mirrors  were  of  two 
varieties.  The  common  ones  were  of  polished  steel;  the  more  costly  ones  were  of 
glass.  The  frames  in  both  instances  were  of  metal  and  highly  decorated.  It  was 
in  the  small  furnishings  that  the  art  of  the  house  was  at  fault.  Mirror  frames, 
clock  cases,  and  candlesticks  passed  the  border-line  of  good  taste. 

Chests  gained  rather  than  diminished  in  importance  during  this  period. 
They  were  no  longer  used  as  seats,  for  chairs  were  abundant.  They  were  no  longer 
needed  as  receptacles  for  armor  and  implements  of  the  chase,  for  hunting  had  fallen 
into  disuse,  and  the  sixteenth  century  was  one  of  peace.  The  housekeeper  did  not 
require  them  for  her  household  stores,  for  more  convenient  pieces  of  furniture  were 
designed  especially  for  her  needs.  The  family  plate  was  no  longer  concealed  in 
them,  for  the  silver  was  displayed  on  the  sideboard  by  day  and  hidden  in  a  safe 
at  night. 

As  dower  or  marriage  coffers,  the  chests,  or  cassoni,  of  the  Renaissance  developed 
into  works  of  art.  Many  artists  made  their  reputations  in  this  field  alone.  The 
finest  gesso  work,  the  purest  gilding,  the  most  intricate  intarsia,  and  the  best  type 
of  carving  entered  into  the  construction  of  these  coffers.  The  cartouche  or 
pierced  shield  was  often  a  feature  of  the  carved  chest.  Acanthus  leaves  and 
delicately  modeled  arabesques  were  also  favorite  designs.  One  Andrea  di  Cosimo 
was  noted  for  his  skill  in  adapting  the  cartouche.  Vasari  says  of  him:  "It  would 
not  be  possible  to  describe  the  vast  number  of  decorations  in  coffers  and  other  works 
of  similar  kind  executed  by  Andrea  di  Cosimo,  seeing  that  the  whole  city  is  full  of 
them.  I  must,  therefore,  decline  the  enumeration  of  them,  but  I  cannot  omit  to 
mention  the  circular  escutcheons  which  were  prepared  by  this  artist,  and  to  such 
an  extent  that  there  could  hardly  be  a  wedding  solemnized  but  that  Andrea  must 
have  his  shops  filled  with  such  works,  either  for  one  or  another  of  the  citizens." 

Many  coffers  were  decorated  with  gesso,  a  composition  of  paint  and  gold-leaf. 
But  the  most  beautiful  ones  were  of  intarsia.  In  the  fifteenth  century  intarsia,  or 
the  inlaying  of  colored  woods  etched  by  hot  irons,  was  little  known  outside  of  the 

42 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


Carthusian  monasteries.  In  the  sixteenth  century  its  fame  reached  the  courts  of 
Francois  I  and  Henry  VIII.  The  inlay  was  composed  of  natural  and  dyed  woods 
scorched  with  hot  sand  or  iron  and  polished  with  penetrating  oils.  Geometrical 
patterns,  copied  from  mosaics,  cinque-cento  ornament,  landscapes,  and  figures  were 
executed  in  this  medium.  Each  artist  had  his  own  methods  of  preparing  the  colors, 
and  these  secrets  were  carefully  guarded.  Among  the  famous  workers  in  intarsia, 
the  intarsia-tori,  as  they  were  called,  were  Fra  Raffaello,  Fra  Damiano,  and  Fra 
Bartolommeo.  ,  These  men  were  monks  of  the  Carthusian  and  Dominican  orders 
but  they  made  marriage-coffers  as  well  as  choir  stalls  and  sacristy  presses.  A 
notable  piece  of  this  sixteenth-century  inlay  is  the  screen  in  the  Charter  House  at 
Pavia,  decorated  by  Fra  Bartolommeo.  Another  celebrated  example  is  the  chasse 
containing  the  relics  of  St.  Dominic  in  the  church  of  Bergamo.  This  work  was 
executed  by  Fra  Damiano,  but  it  is  "called  "Charles  V's  intarsia."  When  Charles 
of  Spain  visited  Bergamo  he  refused  to  believe  that  the  chasse  was  made  of 
inlaid  wood,  declaring  it  was  the  work  of  the  brush.  Nor  was  he  convinced  until  a 
piece  of  the  wood  was  removed.  In  memory  of  this  occasion,  and  the  tribute  paid 
to  the  monk's  skill,  the  wood  was  never  replaced.  Many  museums  and  private 
collections  contain  beautiful  specimens  of  this  Renaissance  inlay,  notable  specimens 
being  in  the  Vincigliata. 

Situated  on  high  land,  overlooking  Florence  and  Fiesole,  is  the  Castello  di  Vin- 
cigliata, rich  in  sixteenth-century  treasures.  The  present  owner  is  an  American, 
Mr.  John  Temple  Leader,  who  has  spent  a  fortune  in  restoring  it.  Although  the 
castle  is  no  longer  used  as  a  dwelling  there  is  no  suggestion  of  a  museum  in  the 
arrangement  of  Mr.  Leader's  collection  which  includes  furniture  of  unusual  beauty, 
rare  pieces  of  silver  and  bronze,  and  exquisite  enamels,  faience,  and  glass.  Part 
of  the  building  antedates  the  Renaissance,  and  the  rooms  in  this  section  have  been 
sympathetically  treated.  The  ceilings  are  particularly  fine  and  range  from  late 
mediaeval  types  to  those  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Ceilings  and  side  walls  during  the  Renaissance  were  treated  in  a  masterly  man- 
ner. Architects  adapted  the  vaulted  ceiling  to  new  conditions  and  transformed 
the  flat  Gothic  type  into  a  thing  of  beauty.  One  treatment  of  the  flat  ceiling 
consisted  of  horizontal  beams,  another  of  cross-beaming.  The  sunken  panels 
formed  by  the  latter  scheme  were  ornamented  by  carved  rosettes  in  high  relief. 
This  treatment  was  a  revival  of  the  coffered  ceiling  of  the  Romans  and  became  one 
of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  Renaissance  house.  When  left  in  the 
natural  colors  of  the  wood  it  was  very  harmonious.  In  the  typical  dwelling  of  the 
sixteenth  century  it  was  seldom  painted.  In  the  palace  the  rosettes  were  usually 
of  gold  set  in  a  colored  background. 

Usually,  when  one  wishes  concrete  examples  of  Renaissance  decoration,  he  must 

44 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


turn  to  the  homes  of  princes.  In  the  palaces  of  Rome, 
Florence,  Naples,  and  Venice  every  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
century  type  of  ceiling  is  represented.  Some  are  very  fine, 
others  are  too  ornate  to  be  beautiful.  Florentine  palaces 
are  simpler  in  architecture  and  furnishings  than  those  of  any 
other  Italian  city,  and  consequently  Florentine  ceilings  are 
more  worthy  of  study.  In  the  Riccardi  Palace  built  by 
Michelozzi,  for  Cosimo  de'  Medici  the  Elder,  and  famous  as 
being  the  birthplace  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  are  ceilings 
of  great  merit,  and  notable  ones  are  in  the  Strozzi  and 
Gondi  palaces. 

A  beautiful  example  of  horizontal  beaming,  is  shown  in 
the  music-room  of  Dorfred  House,  the  residence  of  Frederic 
C.   Bartlett,    Esq.,  Chicago.     In  the  William  C.  Whitney 
.  .  house,  New  York  city,  are  several  ceilings  of  the  coffered 

|-^V%  L^*^/  class.  This  American  mansion  is  truer  to  the  Renaissance 
.W^"v  ^  than  many  Italian  palaces.  The  latter  have  suffered  from 
>~*?4  i  ^lU.S  vandalism,  and  scarcely  less 

I  l^ffSBU^'^Qfi''  *•  from  unfortunate  restora- 
tion. The  Whitney  interiors 
are  very  consistent. 

Celebrated    ceilings    are 

in  the  ducal  palaces  of  Mantua,  Genoa  and  Venice, 

but,  as  a  whole,  they  are  very  elaborate.     Venetian 

decorators    treated  the  ceiling  as  an  independent 

thing,  giving  it  a  prominence  which  was  fatal  to  the 

proportions  of  the  room.     They  painted  pictures  in 

all  the  available  spaces  which  detracted  from  the 

importance  of  the  side  walls  and  spoiled  the  har- 
mony of  floor,  walls,  and  ceiling,  which  was  one  of 

the  great  principles  of  Renaissance  decoration. 

Paneling  formed  a  part  of  the  woodwork  of  the 

sixteenth-century  Italian  house,    but    it  did    not 

cover  the  wall  so  completely  as  in  many  English 

houses.     It  had  the  character  of  a  high  wainscoting 

divided  into  long,  plain  panels,  headed  with  smaller 

ones,  carved  in  low  relief.      Above  the  woodwork 

tapestry  extended  to  the  cornice.   During  this  period 

tapestry  becomes  a  part  of  the  wall.   Hitherto  it  had  ^SUJLiby  RlpEAN 


RENAISSANCE  CARVING 


KMm 


CARVED   CHAIRS    IX   THE    LUCCA   MUSEUM,    EARLY   SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY 

been  simply  a  hanging,  fastened  at  the  top  and  moving  with  every  wind  that 
passed  through  the  room.  "Look  for  hidden  foes  behind  the  arras,"  was  an  old 
proverb  which  now'lost  its  significance. 

Tapestries  were  woven  in  great  quantities  in  Genoa,  Venice,  and  Palermo. 
The  Gobelin  weaves  were  comparatively  new,  as  the  industry,  founded  by  Jean 
Gobelin  was  in  its  infancy,  but  Lille  and  Arras  had  been  pouring  the  products  of  their 
looms  into  Italy  for  generations.  Arras  had  given  to  the  Italian  language  a  new 
word,  arrazzi  and  this  term,  in  a  general  way,  was  applied  to  all  textile  hangings. 
Brocades,  velvets,  and  decorated  leathers  were  sometimes  used  in  palaces,  and 
again,  the  space  above  the  panels  was  filled  with  mural  paintings.  But  the  every- 
day room — the  room  in  the  citizen's  house — depended  on  the  soft-toned  tapestry 
of  Palermo  and  Genoa  for  a  background,  and  as  no  pictures  were  placed  against 
it,  the  result  was  very  satisfactory. 

Pictures  were  the  luxury  of  the  rich.  The  citizen's  house,  therefore,  possessed 
a  harmony  which  the  home  of  the  patrician  lacked.  Tapestry  was  little  fitted  to 
display  paintings.  The  richly  framed  pictures,  when  brought  into  contact  with 
the  richly  figured  walls,  produced  an  effect  of  over-decoration  which  was  ruinous 

47 


to  the  unity  of  the  room.  The  walls  were  sufficiently  pictorial  in  themselves,  and 
escaped  being  too  decorative  by  the  subdued  color  schemes  of  the  weavers. 

Mediaeval  colors  were  glaring;  those  of  the  Renaissance  were  rich  and  somber. 
Venetian  red,  Gobelin  blue,  the  golden  browns  and  deep  yellows  of  Palermo,  and 
the  silvery  greens  of  Genoa  were  among  the  colors  chosen  by  the  tapestry-makers. 
It  remained  for  a  later  and  French  taste  to  introduce  the  pale,  cold  colors,  and  the 
glittering  gold  which  annihilated  harmony  and  spoiled  the  relation  of  walls  and 
furniture. 

Against  the  low-toned  tapestry,  wainscoted  in  Italian  walnut,  the  furniture  of 
the  day  had  its  true  setting.  Brought  in  juxtaposition  with  the  garish  colors  of  the 
baroque  period  it  lost  its  real  character,  and  became  too  heavily  carved  for  beauty. 
Perhaps  no  other  style  of  furniture  loses  so  much  in  being  separate  from  its  legiti- 
mate surroundings  as  that  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  For  this  reason  museum 
pieces  and  isolated  cabinets  and  chairs  in  a  modern  house  give  little  hint  of  their 
one-time  dignity.  In  the  Renaissance  house  the  furniture  was  merely  a  detail  in 
the  general  scheme  of  furnishing,  and  as  such  it  was  nearly  perfect. 

Designs  of  the  late  sixteenth  and  early  seventeenth  centuries  maintained  the 
high  standard  set  by  the  early  Renaissance  furniture-makers.  Carving  was  intricate 
but  was  executed  in  low  relief,  and  the  various  quatro-cento  and  cinque-cento 
motifs  were  kept  carefully  apart.  The  chairs  of  the  early  seventeenth  century, 
illustrated  on  page  47,  show  that  at  that  late  day  the  simple  tre-cento  orna- 
ment was  skilfully  handled,  and  there  are  many  other  pieces  of  similar  date  which 
show  the  same  restrained  treatment.  One  type  of  furniture  had  disappeared. 
The  transition  pieces  combining  Gothic  and  Renaissance  principles  were  extinct. 
No  two  styles  were  less  fitted  to  go  together,  and  no  furniture  was  so  painfully 
ugly  as  that  which  united  Renaissance  ornament  and  Gothic  construction.  Be  it 
said  in  favor  of  the  Italians,  that  this  combination  was  never  common  except  in 
monasteries  where  Gothic  tradition  was  almost  a  religion.  The  chair  on  page  39 
is  a  good  example  of  the  grafting  of  Renaissance  details  on  Gothic  framework, 
using  good  in  the  sense  of  typical. 

Upholstered  chairs  in  the  seventeenth  century  formed  a  distinct  class.  In  the 
early  sixteenth  century  the  cushioned  seat  was  set  in  a  frame  of  wood  to  which  was 
added  later  a  cushioned  back.  Gradually  the  frame  of  the  chair  was  hidden  by  the 
upholstery  of  brocade,  tapestry,  or  leather  until  the  arms  and  supports  alone  were 
visible.  This  type  was  well  illustrated  at  the  Exposition  of  Arts  and  Industries 
held  in  Lucca  a  few  years  ago  when,  in  addition  to  many  beautiful  modern 
articles,  was  exhibited  a  rare  collection  of  Renaissance  furniture.  Many  pieces 
were  contributedby  old  Italian  families,  and  were  shown  to  the  public  for  the 
first  time.  The  exhibition  was  especially  rich  in  carved  and  upholstered  chairs. 

48 


DESK   AND   CHAIR   USED   BY   SAVONAROLA,    MUSEUM   OP  ST.    MARK,    FLORENCE 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


SCREEN    OF    INTARSIA,     PAVIA 
Work  of  Fra  Bartolommeo 


The  carved  chair  of  Italian  walnut  reproduced  on 
page  38  was  loaned  from  the  collection  of  the 
Mansi  palace  of  Lucca,  as  were  also  the  chest 
of  drawers  and  the  fine  sixteenth-century  cabi- 
net with  its  priceless  old  porcelains  shown  on 
pages  36  and  37.  This  cabinet  originally  had  a 
plain  door  of  wood.  The  Renaissance  furniture- 
maker  was  an  artist  and  he  realized  that  a  piece 
so  heavily  carved  should  have  a  solid  door,  con- 
cealing and  not  displaying  the  treasures  within. 
It  was  a  nineteenth-century  cabinet-maker  who 
added  the  glass  front. 

The  Mansi  chair  is  worthy  of  study,  as  it  rep- 
resents a  type  which  has  grown  to  be  accepted  as 
characteristic  of  the  Renaissance.  Modern  furni- 
ture-makers have  copied  its  narrow  back  and 
high  seat,  and  have  made  it  a  medium  for  jig-saw 
carving  and  glued  ornament.  It  was  merely  an 
anteroom  chair  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was 
not  tolerated  long  by  the  Italians,  although  it  was 
in  high  favor  in  England  as  evidenced  by  the  many  examples  in  English  museums. 
A  strange  fatality  has  given  prominence  to  this  least  desirable  of  Renaissance  designs, 
and  emphasizes  the  fact  that  in  furniture  the  survival  is  not  always  of  the  fittest.  The 
dignified  arm-chairs  and  the  fine,  simple,  straight-back  chairs,  illustrated  on  page  47, 
have  been  overlooked  by  modern  wood-workers.  The  Renaissance  table  has  never 
had  justice  done  to  its  beautiful  lines  and  restrained  ornament,  although  the  baroque 
table  of  the  late  seventeenth  century  has  been  made  the  theme  of  countless 
reproductions.  When  furniture-makers  discarded  the  solid  side  supports  of  the 
Renaissance  table  they  sought  to  hide  defective  construction  with  meaningless 
carving.  The  table  with  four  separate  legs  was  yet  to  come.  The  old  forms 
with  heavy  standards  and  long  foot-boards  were  passing  away.  The  transitional 
table  was  not  beautiful,  although  the  result  achieved  in  another  century  was  well 
worth  the  struggle. 

The  baroque  period  was  the  waning  Renaissance  and  corresponded  with  the  rococo 
period  in  France.  The  final  illustration  in  this  chapter  is  a  typical  Italian  example. 
Two  pieces  of  furniture  which  assumed  an  important  place  in  the  late  seventeenth 
century  were  unknown  in  the  early  Renaissance  house,  and  these  were  the  bookcase 
and  the  writing-desk.  Bookcases,  in  the  earlier  period,  were  made  exclusively  for 
the  great  libraries  of  Italy,  and  writing-desks  were  the  property  of  monks  and 

50 


FURNITURE   OF   THE   ITALIAN   RENAISSANCE 


FLORENTINE    MARRIAGE    COFFER 

scribes.  In  the  Museum  of  St.  Mark  in  Florence  is  exhibited  the  desk  used  by 
Savonarola.  It  has  not  a  line  of  decoration,  a  scrap  of  carving.  The  monks  orna- 
mented their  chairs  and  benches,  but  their  desks  were  as  severe  as  their  lives. 
Savonarola's  desk  is  beautiful  in  its  straight  lines  and  plain  surfaces,  and  aside 
from  its  connection  with  the  great  Dominican,  has  value  as  a  piece  of  Renaissance 
woodwork.  The  curule  shown  with  the  desk  is  interesting.  It  is  sold  in  replica 
all  over  Florence  as  "Savonarola's  chair,"  the  Roman  origin  being  overshadowed 
by  its  association  with  the  great  Florentine. 

The  couch  as  distinguished  from  the  bed  was  a  product  of   the  Renaissance. 


A   FINE   EXAMPLE    OF   RENAISSANCE    CARVING 

51 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


It  was  placed  in  the  bedroom  and, 
like  many  of  the  coffers,  was  orna- 
mented with  intarsia  and  gesso. 
Yasari,  in  writing  of  gesso  decora- 
tion, says:  "And  this  custom  pre- 
vailed to  such  an  extent  for  many 
years  that  the  most  distinguished 
masters  employed  themselves  in 
painting  and  gilding.  Nor  were  they 
ashamed  of  this  occupation.  The 
truth  of  what  is  here  said  may  be 
seen  at  this  day  in  the  chambers  of 
.the  magnificent  Lorenzo,  on  which 
were  depicted,  not  by  men  of  the 
common  race  of  painters,  all  the 
jousts  given  by  the  duke." 

Furniture-making  owed  not  a 
little  of  its  prestige  to  the  patronage 
of  the  Medici  family,  and  scarcely 
less  to  the  powerful  Sforza  family 
of  Milan,  the  Gonzaga  of  Mantua, 
the  Farnese  of  Rome,  and  the  Doria 
and  Spinola  houses  of  Genoa.  The 
cities  of  Italy  were  governed  by  men 
who  vied  with  each  other  in  fostering 
the  arts.  They  were  not  all  of  noble 
birth,  but  they  wielded  a  power 
equaled  by  few  princes  of  the  blood. 
A  family  numbering  in  its  ranks  such 
figures  as  Cosimo  the  Elder,  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent,  Clement  VII,  and 
Leo  X  had  little  to  fear  from  royalty. 
When  the  glory  of  this  family  declined 

the  artsof  Florence  declined  also.  And  what  was  true  of  Florence  was  true  of  Genoa, of 
Milan,  and  of  Rome.  The  late  seventeenth  century  sounded  the  death-knell  of  the  Re- 
naissance. Fine  art  was  dead,  for  the  last  of  the  masters  had  passed  away.  Liberal 
art,more  dependent  on  its  patrons  than  fine  art,deterioratedwith  the  waning  influence 
of  those  great  families  who  had  created  standards  of  taste.  The  work  of  the  stone-cut- 
ter, the  silversmith,  and  the  furniture-maker  became  aweak  imitation  of  former  beauty. 

52 


STATE  CHAIR,  LATE  RENAISSANCE, 
BAROQUE  TREATMENT 


CHAPTER  V 

FURNITURE  OF  THE  FRENCH  RENAISSANCE 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  A  TRANSITIONAL  PERIOD  SIMILAR 
TO  THAT  OF  ITALY  BUT  OF  LONGER  DURATION,  GOTHIC  ART  BEING 
MORE  FIRMLY  ROOTED  IN  FRANCE  THAN  IN  THE  SOUTH.  THE 
ORNAMENT  OF  THE  FRENCH  RENAISSANCE  WAS  IN  A  LIGHTER  VEIN 
AND  LESS  DEPENDENT  ON  ANTIQUE  MODELS.  DELICATE  ARA- 
BESQUES AND  PIERCED  SHIELDS  WERE  USED  BY  FURNITURE-MAKERS 
AND  DECORATORS.  LATER  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  WOOD- 
CARVERS  COMBINED  AN  INTERLACED  RIBBON  ORNAMENT  WITH  THE 
LOZENGE  AND  THE  CARTOUCHE,  WHICH  WAS  FOLLOWED  BY  THE 
INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  SHELL  AND  THE  ORNATE  SCROLL.  FROM 

- 

THAT    DATE     FURNITURE-MAKING     DECLINED     IN     SIMPLICITY. 


CHAPTER   Y 

FURNITURE  OF  THE  FRENCH   RENAISSANCE 

IT  was  during  the  reign  of  Charles  VIII  that  the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renais- 
sance extended  to  France.     With  the  accession  of  this  monarch  began  the  long 
wars  with  Naples  and  Milan  which  ended  with  the  extinction  of  the  house  of 
Valois.     Charles's  campaign  in  Italy  gained  neither  lands  nor  glory  for  France,  but 
it  laid  the  foundation  of  the  French  Renaissance. 

"The  new  birth"  in  France  may  be  divided  into  the  following  epochs:  First, 
Transition,  1453-1515,  including  the  reigns  of  Charles  VIII  and  Louis  XII; 
second,  Francois  I,  1515-1547;  third,  Henri  II  and  Henri  IV,  1547-1610;  fourth, 
Louis  XIII,  1610-1643. 

The  first  epoch  was  Renaissance  in  detail  only;  the  construction  was  purely 
Gothic.  The  fourth  was  the  waning  Renaissance  when  a  threadbare  tradition 
remained.  The  strongest  period  was  the  century  1515-1610,  covered  by  the  reigns 
of  five  sovereigns,  three  of  whom  left  an  indelible  impress  on  the  arts  of  the  day. 
Francois  I,  Henri  II,  and  Henri  IV  created  epochs;  Francois  II,  Charles  IX,  and 
Henri  III  did  little  for  the  honor  of  France  and  less  for  art.  The  forty-two  years 
encompassed  by  the  reigns  of  these  three  monarchs,  last  of  the  house  of  Valois, 
were  among  the  blackest  in  history.  Little  that  was  notable  was  produced  in 
France  between  the  death  of  Henri  II  and  the  accession  of  Henri  of  Navarre. 

40 

During  the  thirty  odd  years  that  Francois  I  occupied  the  throne,  more  was  done 
for  the  artistic  development  of  France  than  had  been  accomplished  in  the  combined 
reigns  of  Charles  VII,  Louis  XI,  Charles  VIII,  and  Louis  XII,  who  had  ruled  for 
nearly  a  century. 

Francois  came  to  his  inheritance  when  the  nation  was  ripe  for  a  great  art 
revival,  and  he  had  the  wit  to  seize  the  opportunity,  and  the  brains  and  wealth  to 
make  the  most  of  it.  His  ambition  was  to  raise  France  to  an  equality  with  Italy 
and  to  this  end  he  invited  great  architects  and  painters  to  his  court. 

Italy  was  divided  into  countless  kingdoms  and  dukedoms,  but  France  was 
practically  a  united  country.  Italy  had  her  Florentine  school,  her  Venetian  school, 
her  schools  of  Siena,  Milan,  and  Naples.  The  art  of  France  was  centralized  in  Paris. 
Francois  called  to  his  aid  the  greatest  lights  of  Italy  and  Flanders,  and  began  the 
series  of  magnificent  chateaux  which  to-day  bear  witness  to  his  munificence.  Hun- 
dreds of  native  designers  were  employed  in  building  Chambord,  Chenonceau,  and 
Fontainebleau,  who  worked  under  the  guidance  of  such  men  as  Serlio  and  Vignola, 

55 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


Primaticcio,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  Benvenuto  Cellini.     Among 
the  illustrious  Frenchmen  who  joined  forces  with  the  Italian  architects  and  deco- 
rators, and  later  formed  the  national  school,  were  Bullant,  Lescot,  and  Delorme. 
Besides  building  royal  residences    Fra^ois  remodeled  the  Louvre  and  added 

several  rooms  to  the  chateau 
of  Blois  which  had  been  par- 
tially restored  by  Louis  XII. 
In  Chambord  the  architecture 
of  a  feudal  stronghold  was 
blended  with  Renaissance  de- 
tails. In  Fontainebleau  a  more 
consistent  plan  was  followed. 
The  interior  of  Chambord  was 
demolished  during  the  French 
Revolution,  but  Fontainebleau, 
in  spite  of  its  checkered  history, 
remains  to-day  the  truest  ex- 
ample of  the  French  Renais- 
sance. Many  stirring  events 
have  had  this  historic  palace 
for  a  background.  In  one  of 
the  rooms  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  was  signed ; 
in  another  Monaldeschi  was 
murdered;  and  in  the  great 
gallery  of  Diana  occurred  the 
death  of  Conde  in  1686.  Here 
years  later  the  sentence  of 
divorce  was  passed  on  Joseph- 
ine; and  here  in  the  court  of 
Henri  IV,  Napoleon  parted 
with  his  Old  Guard.  Fontaine- 
bleau was  alternately  a  royal 
dwelling,  a  military  school,  and 
a  papal  residence.  Henri  II  and  Henri  IV  did  much  to  beautify  it;  Louis  XIII  was 
born  within  its  walls  but  seldom  lived  there;  Louis  XIV  cared  little  for  it;  and  Louis 
XV  shunned  it  altogether.  Napoleon  revived  its  splendor  for  a  brief  period  and 
Louis  Philippe  s«pent  a  royal  fortune  in  restoring  it.  Thanks  to  Louis  Philippe  the 
Fontainebleau  of  to-day  is  a  faithful  representation  of  the  Fontainebleau  of  the 

56 


LOUIS    XII    FIREPLACE,    CHATEAU    OF   BLOIS 


FURNITURE   OF   THE    FRENCH    RENAISSANCE 


sixteenth  century.  Much  of  the  woodwork  is  the  same  and  many  of  the  frescoes 
have  been  merely  retouched.  The  fireplaces  and  mantels  have  been  restored  from 
sketches  and  plans  which  had  been  carefully  preserved. 

The  woodwork  of  the  French  Renaissance  differed  materially  from  Italian  wood- 
work of  the  same  period.     The  ornament  was  in  a  lighter  vein,  the  carving  more 
open,  and  less  dependent  on  antique 
models.      Even   when  the    work    was 
executed  by  Italian    designers  it  was 
imbued  with  the  French  spirit.     This 
is  especially  noticeable  in  the  treatment 
of  doors  and  chimney-pieces. 

The  fireplaces  in  Blois  and  Fon- 
tainebleau  show  with  what  a  masterly 
hand  the  workmen  of  the  early  Renais- 
sance wielded  wood  and  stone.  A 
Louis  XII  fireplace  of  stone  is  repro- 
duced herewith.  On  a  field  of  fleur-de- 
lis  is  a  shield  ornamented  by  a  crown 
and  surrounded  by  schallop  shells.  In 
another  portion  of  the  stonework  is  the 
pierced  porcupine,  Louis  XIFs  emblem, 
combined  with  the  ermine  of  Anne  of 
Brittany.  The  uniting  of  royal  emblems 
is  seen  in  many  of  the  rooms  of  this 
chateau.  The  salanfander  of  Francois 
I  and  the  monogram  of  Claude,  his 
wife,  daughter  of  Louis  XII,  occur 
over  and  over.  The  swan  pierced  with 
the  dagger,  Claude's  insignia  is  also  a 
frequent  motif. 

The  chimney-piece  of  the  room  in 
Blois,  illustrated  on  page  59,  shows  the 

charm  and  delicacy  of  the  "Francois  Premier"  style.  This  salon  was  decorated  for 
Queen  Claude  and  the  initials  C  and  F  interlaced  with  crowns  are  conspicuous  in  the 
carving.  The  intricate  low  relief  is  characteristic  of  the  early  Renaissance.  The 
fireplace  in  the  gallery  of  Henri  II,  reproduced  on  page  61,  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
in  France.  The  royal  arms,  more  elaborately  executed  than  in  the  Louis  XII 
mantel,  occupy  the  center  of  the  chimney-breast.  The  frescoes  were  originally 
painted  by  Primaticcio  and  his  pupil  Abbate  and  later  restored  by  Jean  Alaux. 

57 


RENAISSANCE    CHAIR,    CHATEAU    OF    BLOIS 


HISTORIC   STYLES  IN   FURNITURE 


Henri's  initial  inclosed  in  a  crescent,  the  emblem  of  Diane  de  Poitiers,  is  a  favorite 
motif  in  the  decoration.  Four  crescents  encircling  fleur-de-lis  adorn  the  fireplace 
and  are  repeated  over  the  doors.  The  ornamentation  above  the  mantel  contains  a 
hint  of  the  interlaced  lines  and  bands  which  were  destined  to  become  a  marked  feature 
of  the  Henri  II  style  in  both  woodwork  and  furniture.  The  development  of  "strap- 
work"  is  an  interesting  phase  of  Renaissance  ornament.  It  originated  in  Italy, 
but  was  less  favored  by  the  Italians  than  by  the  the  French  and  English.  In  England 
during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  this  form  of  carving  was  used  so  extensively  that  it 
is  to-day  largely  associated  with  the  name  of  that  sovereign.  "Elizabethan  strap  - 
work"  is  the  name  given  to  the  pierced  and  scrolled  woodwork  of  this  period. 

Less  remarkable  in  an  architectural  way  than  the  Francois  I  period  the  Henri 
II  surpassed  it  in  the  industrial  arts.  Furniture,  textiles,  porcelains,  and  book- 
bindings were  triumphs  of  artistic  achievement.  Jean  Grolier,  in  his  exquisite 
bindings,  carried  the  intersecting  ribbon  ornamentation  to  a  high  degree  of 
beauty,  suggesting  the  interlaced  work  of  old  Celtic  and  Saracenic  patterns.  The 
exquisite  Oiron  faience,  better  known  as  "Henri  Deux  ware,"  was  decorated  with 
this  scheme  of  ornament.  In  the  intricate  strap-and-band  decoration  furniture- 
makers  found  an  extensive  field  for  ingenuity.  The  pierced  shield,  the  lozenge,  the 
flat  cartouche,  were  combined  with  interlaced  lines  in  countless  ways.  Grotesque 
heads  in  low  relief  were  also  used  in  connection  with  strap-work,  particularly  in 
cabinets,  presses,  and  armoires.  In  the  Cluny  Museum  is  a  mourning  cabinet 
belonging  to  Diane  de  Poitiers,  ornamented  with  bands  of  interlacing  ribbons 
painted  in  dull  colors.  Another  cabinet  with  similar  decorations  came  from  Clair- 
vaux  Abbey.  A  chest  with  Henri's  monogram  has  narrow  lines  of  marquetry  in 
a  pattern  that  might  have  been  a  direct  copy  of  a  book-cover.  There  are  three 
coffers  in  the  Louvre,  and  two  in  Fontainebleau,  which  display  this  handling. 

In  the  cabinet  furniture-makers  found  the  finest  medium  for  their  talents.  So 
long  as  ornament  was  controlled  and  made  subordinate  to  the  design,  every  piece  of 
carving  from  the  hand  of  the  French  designer  was  a  thing  of  beauty.  Delicate 
arabesques  and  the  more  severe  strap-work  appeared  to  great  advantage  in  the 
cabinet.  The  construction  of  this  article  gave  scope  for  a  treatment  which  was 
impossible  in  the  bed,  the  chair,  or  the  table.  What  the  chest  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  mediaeval  craftsman,  the  cabinet  became  in  the  hands  of  the  furniture-maker 
of  the  French  Renaissance ;  it  was  the  highest  exponent  of  the  craftsman's  skill. 
Fontainebleau,  Blois,  the  Louvre,  and  the  Cluny  contain  many  beautiful  specimens 
of  this  period,  roughly  spanned  by  the  years  1550  and  1600. 

In  this  country  there  are  fine  specimens  in  museums  and  private  collections, 
but  they  lose  much  in  being  separated  from  their  original  setting — a  remark  that 
may  be  made  in  reference  to  all  Renaissance  furniture.  In  the  Lawrence  room  in 

58 


FIREPLACE    BUILT   FOR    CLAUDE,    WIFE    OF   FRANCOIS    I,    CHATEAU   OF   BLOIS 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  an  admirable  effect  is  gained  by  the  use  of  Renais- 
sance panels  which  line  the  walls.  Against  this  background  the  carved  cabinets, 
the  chairs,  and  the  pieces  of  fine  armor  have  a  consistent  setting.  Much  of 
Benvenuto  Cellini's  work  is  here  in  replica.  The  shield  and  helmet  made  for 
Francois  I  and  the  suit  of  armor  belonging  to  Henri  II,  designed  by  Cellini  and 
executed  by  his  pupil  Pilon,  are  both  exhibited.  Pilon  equaled  Cellini  in  strength, 
and  Cousin  and  Jean  Goujon  surpassed  him  in  delicacy.  In  the  andirons  of  the  many 
fireplaces  of  Fontainebleau  and  Blois  may  be  seen  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of 
French  metal-workers. 

When  Henri  IV  came  to  the  throne  the  sixteenth  century  was  nearing  its  close. 
Under  Henri  III  the  arts  had  declined.  Henri  of  Navarre  revived  the  glories  of 
Fontainebleau  and  gave  a  renewed  impetus  to  the  industries  of  France.  But  times 
had  changed  and  the  creative  force  of  the  Renaissance  was  gone.  Henri's  queen, 
Marie  de'  Medici,  cared  little  for  French  taste  and  sought  to  introduce  Italian  work- 
men at  court.  Furniture  of  her  reign  was  either  imported  from  Italy  or  patterned 
closely  on  Italian  models.  Venetian  brocades  and  Genoese  velvets  replaced  French 
and  Flemish  tapestries.  Architecture,  so  far  as  the  queen  had  a  voice  in  the  matter, 
was  decidedly  Italian.  After  Henri's  death  Marie  commissioned  Jacques  Debrosse 
to  build  the  Luxembourg.  The  exterior  was  planned  after  the  Pitti  palace,  the 
queen's  early  home,  and  remains  an  interesting  architectural  monument  to  this 
remarkable  woman. 

In  the  chateau  of  Blois  is  a  chamber  where  Marie  de'  Medici  passed  the  bitter 
hours  of  her  captivity.  It  has  been  described  by  Richard  Sudbury  in  his  delightful 
book,  Two  Gentlemen  in  Touraine: 

"We  turned  with  some  reluctance  from  the  scene  without  and  the  thoughts 
which  it  had  inspired,  to  enter  the  apartments  of  Henri  III.  These  occupy  the 
whole  of  the  upper  floor;  and  if  they  are  barren  of  their  former  furniture,  they  may 
at  least  boast  a  wealth  of  old  and  historical  associations  connected  with  the  times 
of  Catherine  and  her  cousin  Marie  de'  Medici.  The  whole  suite,  consisting  of  halls, 
of  private  rooms  and  galleries,  overlooking  the  town,  is  in  a  perfect  state  of 
restoration.  The  French  government  has  devoted  much  time  and  money  to  the 
preservation  of  old  designs  and  styles  of  decoration.  Everywhere  the  blue  and 
yellow  polished  tiles,  representing  the  or  and  azure  of  heraldry,  are  noticeable  in 
their  ever-changing  designs  upon  the  floor.  The  thick  beams  of  the  ceiling, 
decorated  in  the  manner  peculiar  to  the  Renaissance,  blend  with  that  of  the  walls, 
and  make  us  believe  that  it  is  yesterday  in  which  we  are  living  rather  than  to-day. 
A  beautiful  little  chamber  leads  out  to  the  private  chapel  of  the  king.  It  is 
lined  with  tiny  wooden  panels,  two  hundred  and  forty  in  number,  which  are  of 
different  design  and  highly  ornamented  in  gold  and  brown.  The  ceiling  is  so  similar 

60 


FIREPLACE    IN   THE   GALLERY    OF   HENRI    II,    TONTAINEBLEAU 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


to  the  walls  that  it  gives  to  the  whole  the  appearance  of  a  little  jewel-box  built 
to  inclose  some  royal  gem.  And  indeed  it  did  once  long  ago,  for  hard  by  is  a 
window  where  Marie  de'  Medici,  escaped  after  twenty  years  of  captivity  in 
this  chamber." 

Women  wielded  a  powerful  influence  on  the  arts  of  France  during  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries.     Pious  Anne  of  Brittany,  renowned  for  her     Book   of 

Hours,  cannot  be 
reckoned  as  an  im- 
portant figure  of  her 
day  so  far  as  the  arts 
are  concerned,  but  a 
queen  of  the  follow- 
ing reign,  the  second 
wife  of  Francois  I, 
cannot  be  thus  dis- 
missed. Eleanor  of 
Portugal,  sister  of 
Charles  V,  most  fam- 
ous monarch  of  his 
time  after  Francois 
himself,  was  notable 
in  a  century  of  notable 
women.  Her  interest 
in  the  development 
of  French  architec- 
ture and  decorative 
art  was  very  keen. 
Catherine  de' Medici's 
talents  were  largely 
expended  on  court 
intrigues,  but  Diane 
de  Poitiers  was  an 
important  factor  in 
molding  taste  in  the 
reign  of  Henri  II.  In 
the  waning  days  of  the 
Renaissance  Anne 
of  Austria  was  a  great 

BEDSTEAD    BELONGING   TO   ANNE    OF   AUSTRIA,  FONTAINEBLEAU  patron     Of     the     arts. 

62 


FURNITURE   OF   THE    FRENCH   RENAISSANCE 


Anne's  bedchamber  is  one  of  the  most  sumptuous  of  the  apartments  in  Fon- 
tainebleau.  The  room  is  hung  with  Gobelin  tapestries  and  is  magnificently 
furnished.  The  chairs  are  upholstered  in  Beauvais.  The  tables  and  cabinets  are 
inlaid  in  elaborate  patterns  and  ornamented  with  delicate  carvings.  Rare  vases 
and  urns  are  scattered  through 
the  apartment.  The  effect  is 
bewildering.  Everything  is 
figured,  everything  is  full  of 
motion  and  color.  The  tapes- 
tries and  paintings  depict  the 
most  stirring  events.  There  is 
nothing  restful  about  the  room, 
except  the  bed  which  against 
a  quieter  background  would 
arouse  enthusiasm.  It  is  a 
particularly  fine  specimen.  The 
columns  are  well  proportioned 
and  treated  architecturally  with 
bases  and  capitals.  There  is 
no  foot-board  and  the  head- 
board is  lower  than  in  the  bed 
of  the  previous  century.  The 
wooden  canopy  is  part  of  the 
design  and  is  richly  carved. 
The  hangings  are  of  a  unique 
pattern,  woven  especially  for 
Queen  Anne.  Many  royal 
heads  have  rested  beneath  the 
carved  canopy  and  one  papal 
one.  Between  the  years  1812 
and  1814  Pius  VII  was  impris- 
oned in  Fontainebleau.  Many 
objects  of  interest  belonging  to 
him  are  exhibited  in  another 
room,  the  most  interesting  be- 
ing a  bronze  reliquary,  a  gold 
and  ivory  crucifix,  and  a  small 
clock  studded  with  cameos,  RENAISSANCE  PANELING.  REPLICA  OF  ARMOR  BELONGING 

TO    HENRI    II,    EXECUTED    BY    PILON.       DUTCH     CHAIR. 

given  by  the  pope  to  Napoleon.  MUSEUM  OP  FINE  ARTS,  BOSTON 

63 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


The  chandelier  in  Anne's  bedchamber  belongs  to  the  late  Louis  XIII  period 
and  is  oppressively  gorgeous.  Beneath  each  candle-holder  is  a  huge  pendant  of 
crystal  which  glitters  like  a  mammoth  diamond.  A  comparison  of  the  French 
chandelier  with  the  Italian  one  of  the  day  shows  how  superior  the  latter  is  in  design 
and  workmanship. 

Louis  XIV  carried  the  golden  glitter  of  the  chandelier  a  point  further  than  did 
Louis  XIII,  and  Louis  XV  made  it  an  excuse  for  every  fantastic  bit  of  ornament. 
Louis  XVI  restored  it  to  an  earlier  simplicity,  and  Napoleon  gave  to  it  a  Spartan 
severity.  These  various  styles  may  be  studied  in  Fontainebleau.  From  Francois 
I  to  Louis  Philippe  the  palace  is  an  epitome  of  the  history  of  interior  decoration. 
Seven  historic  periods,  covering  four  centuries,  are  represented  within  its  walls. 

During  the  Henri  IV  period  the  shell,  as  a  motif  in  wood-carving,  came  into 
prominence.  At  first  its  use  was  confined  to  finials  of  chairs  and  cabinets  where 
it  was  extremely  effective.  During  Louis  XIII's  reign  the  shell  passed  into 
another  stage  of  its  existence.  It  formed  a  part  of  nearly  every  piece  of  furniture, 
and  was  repeated  in  the  decoration  of  doors  and  mantels.  With  the  abuse  of  the 
shell  began  the  long  reign  of  rococo  ornament — literally  rock  and  shell — rocaille 
et  coquille — which  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the  history  of  decoration. 

Simon  Vouet,  who  bore  somewhat  the  same  relation  to  Louis  XIII  that  his  pupil, 
Lebrun,  did  to  Louis  XIV,  was  largely  responsible  for  the  florid  ornamentation  of 
the  late  Renaissance  in  France.  He  used  the  heavily  scrolled  cartouche,  the  fancy 
pilaster,  the  ponderous  garland  of  fruits  and  flowers,  the  round  cherub  face  and  the 
fantastic  shell.  Doors  and  mantels  were  oppressively  ornate  and  furniture,  in 
order  to  conform  to  the  same  architectural  scheme,  was  equally  florid. 

The  best  furniture  of  this  period — the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century — was 
of  Flemish  design.  Furniture-makers  were  divided  into  two  groups;  those  who 
followed  the  lead  of  Simon  Vouet  whose  inspiration  was  of  Italian  origin,  and 
those  who  clung  to  the  simpler  sturdy  designs  popular  in  the  Low  Countries. 
Thus  the  furniture  of  the  Louis  XIII  epoch  represents  two  types.  The  first 
was  undoubtedly  more  in  tune  with  the  ornate  decorative  schemes  of  the  day ;  the 
second  was  unquestionably  the  more  beautiful,  though  always  a  little  incongruous 
with  gilded  walls.  The  direct  Flemish  influence  of  the  late  French  Renaissance  has 
been  attributed  to  Rubens  who  visited  Paris  at  the  request  of  Marie  de'  Medici  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This  influence  strengthened  in  the 
succeeding  reign  and  did  not  end  until  the  Louis  XIV  style  was  well  established. 

The  furniture  of  Louis  XIII's  time  was  much  more  varied  than  that  of  the 
preceding  reign.  There  were  sets  of  chairs;  six  or  twelve  single  chairs,  four  arm- 
chairs, and  two  sofas — all  constructed  on  the  same  lines  and  upholstered  in  the  same 
^manner.  Designs  in  stuffs  had  changed.  Bouquets,  knots  of  ribbon,  and  garlands 

64 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


of  flowers  replaced  the  small  and  more  classic  patterns.  Life  was  growing  more 
luxurious  and  it  was  transforming  furniture.  It  was  not  only  transforming,  it  was 
creating.  The  divan  with  high  curved  back,  padded  with  velvet  or  brocade,  was 
the  product  of  Louis  XIII's  reign;  so  also  was  the  console. 

Prints  and  illuminations  of  the  time  of  Louis  XIII  show  a  variety  of  chairs — 
chairs  for  the  master  of  the  house,  the  mistress,  the  children,  and  special  shapes 
for  the  servants.  Litchfield  says  that  the  word  "chaise,"  as  a  diminutive  for 
"chaire,"  found  its  way  into  the  French  vocabulary  at  this  period. 

With  the  inauguration  of  the  scroll  and  shell  a  different  form  of  arm-chair  came 
into  existence.  The  seat  was  lower,  the  arms  more  curving,  the  upholstery  more 
comfortable.  Severity  of  line  was  lost  and  with  it  the  beauty  of  line  also.  To 
balance  the  broader  and  deeper  seat,  larger  supports  were  necessary,  and  these 
gave  to  the  chair  a  heaviness  which  the  light  and  delicate  ornament  accentuated. 

This  description  applies  to  the  French  chair  of  Italian  origin.  The  Flemish 
chair  had  a  high  seat,  a  comparatively  low  back,  and  turned  legs  connected  by 
strong,  rectangular  braces.  The  French  chair  was  supported  by  an  X-brace,  ter- 
minating in  the  center  with  a  scroll.  The  chair  designated  as  the  "Regency  of 
Anne  of  Austria,"  illustrated  in  Chapter  IX,  is  a  refined  type  of  this  style.  The 
chair  on  page  57  combines  the  best  characteristics  of  early  seventeenth-century 
Flemish  and  French  designing.  Here  is  admirable  construction  united  with 
admirable  ornamentation.  The  outlines  are  Flemish  but  not  extreme  Flemish. 
The  seat  is  lower  and  the  back  is  higher  than  in  many  Flemish  chairs  of  the 
period.  The  carving  is  French  but  is  applied  after  the  manner  of  the  Flemish 
craftsmen.  The  turned  legs  and  carved  brace  are  Flemish,  too,  but  treated  with 
French  delicacy.  The  presence  of  the  cane  back  is  worthy  of  note,  for  it  is 
seldom  found  in  French  chairs  of  this  period.  The  cane  back  was  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  Flemish  chair  of  the  late  seventeenth  century  and  in  various 
guises  was  known  in  England,  Italy,  and  Spain.  The  chair  in  Blois  is  a  particu- 
larly attractive  example,  and  illustrates  the  fact  that  in  an  age  of  excessive 
decoration  there  was  an  occasional  designer  who  could  follow  the  dictates  of 
fashion  and  yet  keep  his  work  free  from  extravagance.  In  the  Salon  Louis  XIII 
are  chairs  which  illustrate  the  point  in  hand.  They  are  built  on  prescribed 
lines  but  are  severely  plain.  The  circular  X-brace  is  without  carving  and  the 
arms  are  straighter  than  in  many  chairs  of  the  day.  There  is  no  hint  of  the  shell 
or  the  acanthus  leaf  in  any  part  of  the  construction. 

This  lofty  apartment  was  decorated  and  furnished  for  Henri  IV  whose  initials, 
combined  with  those  of  Marie  de'  Medici,  are  still  visible  in  the  painted  cornice. 
The  walls  are  divided  into  small  panels  painted  with  flowers  and  landscapes,  and 
separated  by  carved  borders.  The  large  pictures  form  a  permanent  part  of  the 

66 


FURNITURE  OF  THE  FRENCH  RENAISSANCE 


decoration,  and  are  the  work  of  Ambroise  Du  Bo  is.  These  huge  canvases  were 
painted  for  Henri  IV  and  represent  scenes  from,  the  story  of  Theagenes  and  Char- 
icles.  Between  the  pictures  are  carved  arabesques  of  fruit  and  flowers  picked  out 
in  gold.  The  room  does  not  equal  the  gallery  of  Henri  II  in  Fontainebleau,  nor 
can  it  approach  in  simple 
grandeur  the  large  apartment 
built  by  Fran9ois  I  in  the 
chateau  of  Blois. 

The  tables  in  this  salon  are 
noteworthy,  for  they  exhibit  a 
delicacy  unknown  in  the  Italian 
table  of  the  day.  The  detached 
legs  are  held  in  place  with  a 
slight  connecting  base.  The 
ornament  is  extremely  refined. 
As  the  trestle  table  gave  place 
to  the  bolt-and-slot  table,  and 
that  to  the  table  of  the  Renais- 
sance, and  that  in  turn  to  the 
hideous  baroque  table,  so  the 
French  table  of  the  early  seven- 
teenth century,  faulty  as  it  was 
in  design,  was  slowly  approach- 
ing the  beautiful  table  of  the 
eighteenth  century  when,  free 
from  base-boards  and  connect- 
ing rods,  it  stood  on  four  inde- 
pendent supports.  The  result 
was  an  English  production  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  but 
the  French  had  a  part  in  its 
evolution. 

Before  Louis  XIII's  long  reign  was  over  the  Renaissance  had  run  its  course. 
The  history  of  ornament  is  the  history  of  furniture  and  both  repeat  themselves. 
From  a  debased  type  slowly  arose  a  vital  one  which,  after  shaking  off  the  chrysalis 
stage,  remained  consistent  for  a  brief  period,  then  declined,  and  was  finally 
superseded  by  a  new  force  which  in  turn  shared  the  fate  of  its  predecessor.  This 
waxing  and  waning  continued  until  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
when  historic  furniture,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  ceased  to  exist. 

67 


CABINET,    LATE   RENAISSANCE 


CHAPTER  VI 

FURXITURE-MAKINd    IX    GERMAXY   AXD   THE   LOW 
COUNTRIES 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  IX  FLAXDERS  AND  HOLLAND  AFTER 
A  BRIEF  PERIOD  OF  ASSIMILATION  THE  RENAISSANCE  DEVELOPED 
OX  ORIGINAL  LINES.  WOOD  CARVERS  ADAPTED  THE  ARABESQUE 
AXD  THE  CARTOUCHE  TO  A  SIMPLER,  STURDIER  FORM  OF  ORNA- 
MENT THAX  WAS  KXOWX  IN  FRANCE  AXD  ITALY.  HEADS  AXD 
GROTESQUE  MASKS  WERE  INTRODUCED  INTO  CABINET  WORK, 
BUT  ALWAYS  WITH  MARKED  EFFECT.  THE  DUTCH  EXCELLED 
IN  MARQUETRY,  AXD  THE  FLEMIXGS  IN  THE  USE  OF  CANE,  BOTH 
PHASES,  OF  WORK  EXERTING  A  POWERFUL  INFLUENCE  ON  THE 
FURXITURE-MAKING  OF  OTHER  COUNTRIES.  DURING  THE  EARLY 
SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  THE  GERMANS  COMBINED  RENAISSANCE 
DETAILS  WITH  GOTHIC  CONSTRUCTION.  LATER  A  MORE  CON- 
SISTENT TYPE  WAS  ESTABLISHED  IN  WHICH  FINE  METAL  WORK 
WAS  CONSPICUOUS. 


CHAPTER   YI 

FURNITURE-MAKING  IN  GERMANY  AND  THE  LOW  COUNTRIES 

THE  close  connection  politically  between  Flanders,  Spain,  and  Germany 
brought  about  a  curious  affinity  between  the  various  phases  of  the  Renais- 
sance known  as  Flemish,  Spanish,  and  German.  Charles,  king  of  Spain  was 
emperor  of  Germany,  and  also  count  of  Flanders  and  duke  of  Burgundy. 
The  intercourse  between  Spain  and  the  Low  Countries  had  for  several  centuries 
been  very  intimate.  When  Marie  of  Burgundy  married  Archduke  Maximilian, 
Austria  became  a  part  of  the  royal  circle  which  now  included  Spain,  Germany, 
Holland,  and  Flanders.  By  this  marriage  the  Low  Countries  were  annexed  to  the 
Austrian  crown,  a  rich  possession  at  this  period  of  the  world's  history. 

The  development  of  the  Renaissance  in  Holland  and  Flanders,  with  its  subse- 
quent influence  on  the  handicraft  of  other  nations,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
chapters  in  the  history  of  industrial  art.  Holland  and  Flanders  accepted  the  move- 
ment tardily  and  never  succumbed  to  it  as  did  the  French  and  the  Italians.  Just 
as  Gothic  ornament  remained  beautiful  in  the  Low  Countries  long  after  it  had 
become  extravagant  in  France,  so  the  ornament  of  the  Renaissance  remained  cohe- 
rent long  after  it  had  become  grotesque  in  France  and  England. 

Holland  and  Flanders  reversed  the  usual  order  of  Renaissance  development. 
The  early  and  middle  periods  were  less  creditable  than  the  later  phases.  The 
Italians  and  the  French  achieved  their  triumphs  before  the  advent  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  the  Dutch  and  the  Flemings  brought  their  work  to  perfection  after 
the  year  1600.  If  the  English  were  the  great  furniture-makers  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Low  Countries  were  the  great  furniture- 
makers  of  the  seventeenth.  The  part  that  Holland  and  Flanders  played  in  Eng- 
land's triumphs  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  late  Jacobean  and  the  Queen  Anne 
styles,  both  of  which  were  a  preparation  for  the  great  eighteenth-century  styles, 
were  of  Dutch  origin. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  Flemish  and  Dutch  work 
was  so  closely  allied  that  the  two  adjectives  are  often  used  interchangeably. 
Previous  to  this  date  there  was  a  greater  difference  in  the  arts  of  the  two 
countries.  Flanders  was  more  closely  in  touch  with  France,  and  Holland  with 
Germany.  The  hall  of  the  Gruuthuuse,  shown  on  page  75,  is  a  typical  Flemish 
interior  of  a  semi-public  nature.  The  mantel  is  of  stone  and  brick,  with  a  simple 
hood,  ornamented  in  low  relief.  The  severity  of  this  room  is  in  startling  contrast 

71 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


to  the  French  apart- 
ments of  the  period. 
The  chairs  are  of  the 
type  described  in  the 
previous  chapter,  hav- 
ing high  seats,  compara- 
tively low  backs,  and 
strong  turned  legs  and 
braces.  Of  like  con- 
struction is  the  Dutch 
chair  in  the  Museum  of 
Fine  Arts,  Boston,  illus- 
trated on  page  63.  The 
table  is  similar  to  the 
English  type  of  the  late 
sixteenth  century,  but 
of  a  higher  order  of 
workmanship.  Contem- 
porary with  the  table  is 
the  beautiful  oak  cup- 
board,reproduced  on  the 
following  page.  It  is 
interesting  to  com- 
p  a  r  e  this  sixteenth- 
century  specimen  with 
the  fine  fifteenth-cen- 
tury cupboard  illustrated 
in  Chapter  III.  Both  are 
Flemish  and  both  show 
a  striking  similarity  of 
construction.  The  divi- 
sions of  the  doors,  pan- 
els, and  drawers  are 
identical.  The  locks  are 
placed  in  the  same  rela- 
tive position;  the  han- 
dles of  the  drawers  are 

of  the  same  variety;  the  hinges  are  of  the  same  dimensions.     The  Renaissance 
cupboard  has  brackets  and  the  Gothic  cupboard  has  a  heavier  molding,  but  barring 

72 


CABINET   OF   DUTCH   MARQUETRY 


FLEMISH   CUPBOARD,   SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


these  details  the  constructive  qualities  are  one  and  the  same.  When  it  comes 
to  ornament  there  is  a  hundred  years'  difference  in  time,  and  a  world  of  difference 
in  the  treatment.  Each  is  typical  of  its  kind  and  each  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of 
wood-carving. 

Flemish  cabinet-making  had  a  wide  influence  on  the  furniture-makers  of  other 
countries,  but  Flemish  chair-making  exerted  a  greater  one.  The  chair  with  turned 
legs  and  braces  traveled  from  one  country  to  another,  but  no  design  equaled  in 
traveling  capacity  the  cane  chair  of  Flanders.  It  found  its  way  to  France,  Spain, 
England  and  later  to  America,  each  country  adding  a  few  characteristics.  In 
England  it  took  root  so  firmly  that  for  years  it  was  classed  as  Jacobean,  and  still 
masquerades  as  such  in  many  old  catalogues  and  inventories.  The  attributes  of 
the  pure  Flemish  design  were  a  back  and  seat  of  finely  woven  cane,  feet  termi- 
nating in  an  outward  scroll,  three  turned  stretchers,  and  a  carved  under  brace 
following  in  general  lines  the  carving  of  the  back  The  beautiful  chair  in  Blois, 
described  in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  a  French  adaptation  of  the  style. 

Holland's  chief  contribution  to  furniture-making  of  the  seventeenth  century 
was  her  exquisite  marquetry.  Holland's  commercial  intercourse  with  the  orient 
gave  her  a  knowledge  of  rare  tropical  woods,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  she  was 
one  of  the  first  nations  to  use  veneering  as  a  form  of  decoration.  Intarsia  had 
been  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  Italy.  France  later  in  the  century 
gave  to  the  world  Andre  Charles  Boulle  whose  marvelous  work  in  brass  and 
shell  stands  unrivaled.  Spain  led  in  the  intricate  inlaying  of  ivory  and  silver — 
a  legacy  from  the  Moors.  But  to  Holland  belongs  the  honor  of  bringing  to  per- 
fection the  veneer  of  colored  woods  known  as  "marquetry." 

Hamilton  Jackson  in  his  book,  Intarsia  and  Marquetry,  says  "The  word  'in- 
tarsia'  is  derived  from  the  Latin  'interserere,'  to  insert,  according  to  the  best  Italian 
authorities,  though  Scherer  says  there  was  a  similar  word,  'tausia,'  which  was  applied 
to  the  inlaying  of  gold  and  silver  in  some  other  metal,  an  art  practiced  in  Damascus, 
and  there  called  damascening;  and  that  at  first  the  two  words  meant  the  same 
thing,  but  after  a  time  one  was  applied  to  work  in  wood  and  the  other  to  metal- 
work.  The  word  'tausia'  is  said  to  be  of  Arabic  origin,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  art  is  oriental.  It  perhaps  reached  Europe  either  by  way  of  Sicily  or  through 
the  Spanish  Moors.  "Marquetry,"  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  word  of  much  later  origin, 
and  comes  from  the  French  "marqueter,"  to  spot,  to  mark.  It  seems,  therefore, 
accurate  to  apply  the  former  term  to  those  inlays  of  wood  in  which  a  space  is  first 
sunk  in  the  solid." 

After  the  accession  of  William  of  Orange  Dutch  marquetry  was  imported  in 
great  quantities  in  England,  many  pieces  of  which  exist  to-day  in  museums  and 
private  collections.  The  wealthy  Dutch  colonists  in  America  possessed  beau- 

74 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


tiful  specimens  of  this  work  in  the  form  of  cupboards  and  kasses.  These  are 
still  preserved  by  the  descendants  of  the  original  owners  and  form,  in  their  entirety, 
an  almost  complete  history  of  the  art  as  applied  to  the  decoration  of  furniture 
from  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  until  late  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  Germany  there  was  a  long  transitional  period  during  which  the  lingering 
traditions  of  Gothic  art  died  slowly.  The  early  phases  of  the  Renaissance  show 
the  grafting  of  the  new  upon  the  old.  This  mixture  of  Gothic  and  Renaissance 
was  less  successful  in  that  country  than  in  France  where  a  happier  union  prevailed. 

The  best  examples  of  German  wood-carving  of  the  early  sixteenth  century  were 
of  ecclesiastical  origin.  Choir  stalls  and  altar-pieces  were  richly  decorated  in  the 
manner  of  the  day.  In  domestic  architecture  the  combination  of  Gothic  con- 
struction and  Renaissance  ornament  was  less  successful.  A  certain  quaintness, 
however,  marked  all  German  handicraft  of  this  period  and  early  Renaissance 
specimens  are  eagerly  sought  to-day.  Following  the  transitional  period  came  the 
Flemish-German  period  in  which  a  marked  similarity  existed  between  the  work 


ROOM   IN   AN   OLD   DUTCH   HOME,   EDAM,    HOLLAND,    FURNITURE   OP  THE   SEVENTEENTH    AND 

EIGHTEENTH    CENTURIES 

76 


GERMAN  PRESS,  TYPICAL   EXAMPLE   OF  RENAISSANCE  CARVING 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


of  Flanders  and  Germany.  Spanish  influence  was  fleeting  and  was  mainly  confined 
to  a  curious  ornamentation  of  silver  and  ivory  based  on  Saracenic  patterns. 

Toward  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  German  handicraft  became  more 
individual  and  the  late  Renaissance  development  was  a  distinct  phase.  Not 
until  the  late  seventeenth  century,  when  German  designers  became  engulfed  in  the 
extreme  rococo,  did  the  work  of  this  nation  lose  its  beauty  and  vitality.  Augs- 
burg, Dresden,  Munich,  Cologne,  and  Nuremburg  contain  many  sixteenth-century 
specimens.  Chairs,  cupboards,  and  presses  of  this  period  are  beautiful  specimens 
of  wood-carving.  The  great  presses  of  this  century  are  the  most  characteristic 
pieces  of  furniture.  Made  of  oak  and  walnut  with  carved  panels  and  heavy 
doors  they  are  as  substantial  to-day  as  when  they  came  from  the  hands  of  their 
maker.  The  press,  illustrated  on  the  preceding  page,  is  made  of  walnut  with  an 
unusually  fine  scheme  of  decoration.  The  plain  surfaces  are  well  distributed 
and  the  ornament,  although  elaborate,  is  neither  heavy  nor  fantastic.  The  lock  is 
concealed  in  the  carving,  while  the  key  repeats  the  lines  of  the  ornament.  The 
ball-feet  are  worthy  of  note  as  they  indicate  a  new  feature  of  furniture-making. 


78 


CHAPTER  VII 

FURNITURE  OF  THE  SPANISH  RENAISSANCE 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  A  BLENDING  OF  RENAISSANCE 
AND  MOORISH  ORNAMENT  LARGELY  TINCTURED  WITH  FLEMISH 
INFLUENCE.  FURNITURE-MAKERS  COMBINED  RARE  WOODS  WITH 
SILVER  AND  IVORY,  DEPENDING  UPON  INLAY  INSTEAD  OF  CARV- 
ING FOR  DECORATIVE  EFFECT. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FURNITURE  OF  THE  SPANISH  RENAISSANCE 

AS  Gothic  ornament  was  largely  dominated  by  Saracenic  influence,  so  it  was 
with  the  ornament  of  the  Renaissance.     Through  all  the  work  of  Spanish 
craftsmen  runs  a  vein  of  Moorish  feeling.     It  is  shown  in  all  the  arts,  espe- 
cially in   that  of  the  wood-carver.     Many  pieces  of  furniture  of  this  period  are 
distinctly  Moorish;  others  combine  a  strong  Italian  or  Flemish  influence. 

Furniture  was  imported  in  quantities  and  the  fact  that  an  old  piece  is  found 
in  Spain  does  not  always  indicate  that  it  is  of  Spanish  origin.  Charles  V,  anxious 
to  equal  his  royal  brother-in-law  in  the  splendor  of  his  court,  invited  workmen 
from  the  important  cities  of  Europe  to  establish  their  crafts  in  Seville,  Toledo, 
Valladolid,  and  Vargua.  Among  the  foreign  workmen  who  took  up  their  residence 
on  Spanish  soil  were  wood-carvers,  tapestry- weavers,  marqueters,  inlayers,  and 
goldsmiths.  Moorish  inlaying  was  already  a  perfected  craft  and  visiting  artisans 
in  this  branch  learned  more  than  they  gave.  The  metal-work  of  the  peninsula 
had  been  for  centuries  of  a  high  order,  especially  in  the  way  of  damascening  and 
niello  work. 

Rare  and  beautiful  woods  entered  into  the  composition  of  Spanish  furniture 
during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  From  her  possessions  in  the 
east  Spain  imported  ebony  and  ivory  which  were  utilized  in  the  making  of 
coffers  and  cabinets'  Many  of  the  latter  were  plain  on  the  exterior,  except  for 
beautifully  wrought  locks  and  hinges.  The  ornament  was  confined  to  the  interior 
and  was  of  exquisite  workmanship.  The  connection  between  the  chest  and  the 
cabinet  seems  to  have  been  a  close  one  in  Spain.  The  massive  cupboards  and 
presses  of  the  north  found  little  favor  among  native  designers.  The  typical 
Spanisji  cabinet  was  an  elevated  chest  supported  by  carved  or  turned  columns. 
Instead  of  doors  there  was  a  drop  lid  which  could  be  lowered  by  a  turn  of  a  key. 
Inside  were  many  drawers  and  compartments  ornamented  in  gold  and  vermilion, 
or  showing  the  characteristic  combination  of  ivory  and  silver.  Miniature  arches, 
colonnades,  and  doors  were  revealed  by  the  turning  key.  "All  somewhat  bizarre," 
says  an  English  critic,  "and  altogether  rather  barbarous,  but  a  rich  and  effective 
treatment."  Silver  was  used  to  such  an  extent  in  the  making  of  furniture  that  it 
was  forbidden  by  a  royal  edict  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  "No 
cabinets,  desks,  coffers,  braziers,  tables,  or  other  articles  decorated  with  stamped, 
raised,  carved,  or  plain  silver  should  be  manufactured." 

81 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


The  influence  of  the  Flemish  cane  chair  on 
furniture-making  of  other  nations  has  been  men- 
tioned. The  leather  chair  of  Spain  almost 
equaled  it  in  importance.  The  Spanish  design 
consisted  of  a  sturdy  frame  of  oak  or  chestnut, 
a  back  completely  incased  in  leather,  turned 
stretchers,  a  carved  under-brace,  and  feet  which 
have  been  termed  "hoof"  by  collectors.  The 
leather  was  of  decorated  Cordovan  held  in  place 
by  large  nails.  An  interesting  fate  pursued  this 
chair,  together  with  the  celebrated  Flemish 
model.  English  furniture-makers  combined  the 
back  of  one  with  the  feet  of  the  other,  some- 
times using  cane,  sometimes  leather.  The  com- 
posite chair  which  reached  America  late  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  usually  had  Spanish  feet 
grafted  upon  a  Flemish  framework.  The  inter- 
mingling of  the  two  designs  worked  for  good  in 
many  cases,  for  in  the  hands  of  skilful  craftsmen 
the  best  points  of  the  two  were  retained.  The 
Spanish  foot  was  undoubtedly  more  graceful  than 
the  Flemish,  while  the  general  outline  of  the 
Flemish  chair  was  better  than  the  Spanish.  The 
Italians  combined  the  various  characteristics  with 
marked  success.  The  English  were  less  success- 
ful in  their  treatment. 

In  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston  is  a  beautiful  high-backed  leather  chair. 
It  has  the  scrolled  under-brace,  the  fine  hoof  feet,  and  other  distinctive  marks  of 
the  pure  Spanish  type.  It  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  its  kind  in  America. 

A  characteristic  Spanish -Flemish  design  may  be  found  in  the  chapter  entitled  Colo- 
nial Furniture,  page  172.  This  chair  shows  the  mingling  of  the  two  styles,  and  is  of 
English  origin. 


SPANISH   CHAIR,  MUSEUM   OF   FINE 
ARTS,  BOSTON 


82 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ENGLISH   FURNITURE  OF  THE   SIXTEENTH   AND 
SEVENTEENTH   CENTURIES 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE!  FIRST  THE  ENGLISH  RENAISSANCE 
OR  TUDOR  WHICH  WAS  A  MINGLING  OF  FLEMISH  AND  ITALIAN 
GRAFTED  UPON  GOTHIC.  SECOND,  LATE  TUDOR  OR  ELIZABETHAN, 
SHOWING  GREATER  UNITY;  STRAP-WORK  AND  PANELING  WERE 
FEATURES  OF  THIS  PERIOD.  THIRD,  JACOBEAN  COVERING  NEARLY 
A  CENTURY,  AND  INCLUDING  MANY  TYPES.  FURNITURE  WAS 
PANELED  AND  CARVED  UNTIL  WALNUT  WAS  INTRODUCED  WHEN 
VENEER  AND  MARQUETRY  BECAME  POPULAR.  AMONG  JACOBEAN 
CHARACTERISTICS  WERE  THE  SPIRAL  LEG,  THE  RISING  PANEL, 
"DOG  TOOTH"  AND  SCROLL  BORDERS,  AND  SPINDLE  ORNAMENTS. 
WITH  THE  ACCESSION  OF  WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE,  IN  1688,  DUTCH 
INFLUENCE  BECAME  PARAMOUNT,  AND  ENGLISH  FURNITURE 
WAS  SLOWLY  REVOLUTIONIZED — THE  PERFECTED  STYLE  BEING 
KNOWN  AS  QUEEN  ANNE. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ENGLISH    FURNITURE    OF    THE     SIXTEENTH    AND    SEVENTEENTH 

CENTURIES 

WHEN  Henry  VIII  returned  from  his  meeting  with  Francois  I  and  Charles 
V  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  he  sought  to  introduce  into  England 
some  of  the  magnificence  that  characterized  the  French  court.     Impor- 
tant changes  in  Windsor  and    Hampton  date   from  this    event.     The  great  tide 
of  the  Renaissance,  however,  had  reached  England  before  this  momentous  gather- 
ing of  sovereigns. 

Torrigiano,  a  contemporary  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  was  commissioned  to  erect 
the  tomb  of  Henry  VII.  His  treatment  was  naturally  in  the  style  of  the  Renais- 
sance which  was  approaching  its  first  flower  in  Italy.  Holbein's  sojourn  in  England 
was  an  important  link  in  the  chain  which  was  strengthened  by  distinguished  visi- 
tors from  France,  Italy,  and  Flanders. 

The  sixteenth  century  was  a  period  of  great  architectural  activity  in  England. 
Hardwick  Hall  and  Longleat  are  splendid  specimens  of  the  early  Renaissance. 
The  castle  of  None  Such  erected  by  Henry  VIII,  were  it  now  in  existence,  would 
form  a  valuable  addition  to  Renaissance  architecture,  for  it  embodied  the  work 
of  many  celebrities.  John  of  Padua  was  court  architect  and  to  him  was  intrusted 
the  larger  share  of  the  work.  It  was  the  king's  wish  to  have  the  palace  equal  Fon- 
tainebleau,  and  he  spared  no  expense  in  carrying  out  this  desire. 

The  style  known  as  "English  Renaissance"  or  "Tudor"  was  a  mingling  of  Italian, 
French,  and  Flemish,  the  latter  largely  predominating.  It  was  not  until  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  that  the  style  became  distinctive.  During  her  long  reign 
greater  encouragement  was  given  to  native  workmen,  and  the  style  known  as 
"Elizabethan"  was  much  more  English  than  that  of  the  early  Tudors. 

Two  marked  phases  in  interior  work  existed  under  the  Tudor  sovereigns.  The 
first  was  developed  in  Henry  VIII's  time;  the  second  reached  its  culmination 
under  Elizabeth.  The  first  was  the  "linen-fold"  motive  in  wood  paneling  and 
furniture;  the  second  was  "strap- work,"  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Henri 
II  period  which  was  contemporaneous  with  the  Elizabethan.  From  France  via 
Flanders  the  linen  pattern  is  supposed  to  have  emanated,  although  its  origin  is 
somewhat  obscure.  It  was  introduced  into  England  during  the  reign  of  Henry 
VII  and  appears  to  have  won  instant  approval.  Like  strap-work  it  appealed 
strongly  to  English  taste.  The  treatment  of  the  pattern  suggested  folds  of  linen 
arranged  in  long,  perpendicular  lines. 

85 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


A  room  in  Hampton  Court  is  paneled  in  this  manner  and  dates  from  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  Haddon  Hall,  Parkham,  and  Oxbridge  Castle  contain  rooms  with 
similar  woodwork.  This  scheme  of  decoration,  which  lasted  for  nearly  a  century 
in  England,  had  no  connection  with  the  Renaissance.  It  has  been  called  the  latest 
survival  of  the  Gothic  and  the  last  of  mediaeval  ornament.  It  was  known  in  the 
monasteries  of  France  long  before  it  reached  England,  and  it  is  possible  that  it 
may  have  been  in  use  as  early  as  1450  in  Flanders  and  Germany.  In  England  its 
development  was  wholly  secular  and,  with  few  exceptions,  was  confined  to  wall 
treatment.  The  folds  were  executed  in  low  relief  and,  during  the  best  period, 
were  without  ornament.  A  beautiful  cupboard,  carved  in  this  manner,  owned  by 
Guy  F.  Laking,  Esq.,  is  shown  in  this  chapter.  This  specimen  belongs  to  the  early 
sixteenth  century  and  is  of  French  origin. 

When  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne  the  linen  pattern  had  lost  its  simplicity. 
It  gradually  declined  in  favor  and  another  style  took  its  place.  The  beauty  of 
Elizabethan  strap-work  has  been  mentioned.  The  development  of  this  scheme  of 
decoration,  like  its  predecessor,  was  of  slow  growth,  and  was  not  perfected  until 
late  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  It  survived  this  sovereign  many  years,  finding  favor 
under  the  Stuarts.  Haddon  and  Hardwick  Halls  contain  many  examples  of  strap- 
work.  Over  the  fireplace  in  the  Presence  chamber  of  Hardwick  is  a  simple  inter- 
pretation of  the  motif,  combined  with  the  round  and  oval  lozenge.  In  the  state 
dining-room  is  a  stone  chimney-piece  with  a  more  elaborate  treatment.  A  plain 
entablature,  with  an  inscription,  is  surrounded  by  intricate  strap-work  in  which 
figures  are  introduced.  The  date  of  the  completion  of  the  hall,  1597,  is  cut 
in  the  stone.  Hardwick  as  a  whole  is  a  magnificent  example  of  Elizabethan 
decoration. 

The  great  Presence  chamber  shows  another  scheme  of  wall  treatment  which  was 
in  high  favor  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  This  was  the  plastered 
frieze  used  in  connection  with  wood  paneling  or  tapestry.  The  great  tapestry- 
weaving  districts  of  Flanders  and  the  Loire  were  sending  forth  their  beautiful 
productions  to  enrich  the  manor  houses  across  the  channel.  The  finest  Flemish 
tapestries  are  of  this  century,  and  Hardwick  has  many  beautiful  specimens,  the 
most  elaborate  hanging  in  the  Audience  or  Presence  room,  which  is  illustrated  in 
this  chapter.  Here  the  queen  was  received  when  she  honored  Bess  of  Hardwick, 
the  Countess  of  Shrewsbury,  with  her  visits.  As  a  picturesque  figure  of  her  day 
Bess  of  Hardwick  almost  rivals  Queen  Bess.  Her  wit,  her  beauty,  her  money,  and 
her  many  marriages  have  been  the  theme  of  numerous  stories.  As  a  romantic 
heroine  for  an  historical  novel  the  Countess  of  Shrewsbury  leaves  little  to  be 
desired,  and  no  background  could  be  more  kaleidoscopic  than  beautiful  old  Hard- 
wick. The  Presence  chamber,  where  so  many  important  events  have  been  en- 


LINEN-FOLD    CUPBOARD,    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


acted,  is  in  a  beautiful  state  of  preservation.  Above  the  tapestry  is  the  quaint 
frieze,  once  highly  colored,  but  now  faded  to  dim  blues,  greens,  and  yellows.  Diana 
and  her  nymphs  are  represented  in  the  plaster,  together  with  strange  birds  and 
animals.  The  background  is  filled  with  stiff  trees  and  the  whole  effect  is  quaintly 
decorative. 

The  furniture  of  the  room,  with  the  exception  of  the  stools  with  curved  legs, 
belongs  to  the  late  sixteenth  century.  The  table  is  the  type  that  followed  the 
board-and-trestle.  The  stretchers,  or  "struts,"  as  they  were  then  called  in  England, 
are  a  few  inches  from  the  ground.  This  long  and  narrow  style  remained  the 
accepted  form  until  late  in  the  Stuart  period.  The  round  table  with  many 
turned  supports,  known  in  America  as  the  "thousand-legged  table,"  and  in  England 
as  the  "gate-leg  table,"  was  the  successor  of  the  heavy  Elizabethan  pattern.  In 
the  early  Jacobean  period  (from  the  accession  of  James  I  until  the  beginning  of  the 
Commonwealth)  many  variations  of  the  long  table  were  in  use.  The  legs  were 
often  skilfully  turned,  showing  balls  and  rectangles,  the  struts  were  grooved,  and 
carved  with  the  "dog-tooth"  pattern;  occasionally  brackets  were  placed  beneath 
the  top,  ornamented  in  similar  manner. 

Chairs,  as  the  seventeenth  century  progressed,  became  more  varied  and  were 
constructed  with  a  greater  regard  for  comfort.  During  the  Tudor  period  there  were 
few  chairs  in  general  use.  Benches  and  stools  were  the  common  seats  of  the  day. 
The  Flemish  chair,  with  high  seat  and  low  back,  was  placed  in  halls  and  audience 
rooms.  It  was  seldom  seen  in  the  homes.  The  turned  chair,  with  crude  supports 
and  heavy  spindles,  was  a  more  common  style  and  is  interesting  to  Americans, 
inasmuch  as  it  was  the  earliest  type  imported  in  the  colonies.  Governor  Carver 
and  Elder  Brewster  brought  turned  chairs  with  them  in  the  Mayflower  which  are 
now  exhibited  in  Pilgrim  Hall,  Plymouth. 

The  most  important  chair  of  Elizabeth's  day  and  of  the  succeeding  reign  was 
the  wainscot  chair  which,  as  its  name  indicates,  was  of  oak.  This  was  a  mas- 
sive piece  of  workmanship,  far  above  the  turned  chair  in  point  of  execution/  and 
often  carved  with  strap-work,  scrolls  and  bits  of  Renaissance  ornament.  A  plain 
example  of  the  wainscot  chair  is  seen  in  Liberty  Hall,  Philadelphia,  and  a  more 
elaborate  specimen  in  the  Essex  Institute,  Salem.  The  latter  is  a  fine  piece 
of  Elizabethan  furniture  and  would  be  rated  as  such  in  England. 

The  wainscot  table  was  a  little  later  in  date  than  the  wainscot  chair.  It  was 
a  combination  chair  and  table,  the  back  of  the  seat  forming  the  top  of  the  table. 
It  did  not  supersede  the  long  table  previously  mentioned,  but  was  used  in  connec- 
tion with  it  until  the  more  convenient  "  gate-leg  table"  became  the  accepted  pat- 
tern. Esther  Singleton,  in  writing  of  oak  furniture  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  says  of  the  word  wainscot:  "The  name,  according  to  Skeat, 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN   FURNITURE 


being  derived  from  the  low  Danish  "wagenschot",  the  best  kind  of  oak  wood,  well 

grained    and    without    knots That  wainscot  was    applied  to    the    wood 

rather  than  the  paneling  we  learn  from  Harrison's  Historical  Description  of  the 
Land  of  Britaine  (1587),  where  he  says,  'that  the  oak  grown  in  Bardfield  Park, 
Essex,  is  the  finest  for  joiner's  craft,  for  ofttimes  have  I  scene  of  their  works  made 
of  that  oak  so  fine  and  fair  as  most  of  the  wainscot  that  is  brought  hither  out  of 
Danske.' " 

The  word  "joined"  is  a  frequent  one  in  old  annals.  In  1574  an  inventory  of 
the  furniture  in  Thomas  Cumberworth's  house  included:  "A  presse  of  waynscott 
wt  diverse  shelffes,  3  thrown  cheyers,  3  joyned  forms,  2  joyned  tables,  1  pair  of 
bedstocks,  1  grete  waynscott  cheyer,  1  waynscott  bed,  1  court-cupboarde,  6 
joyned  stools."  Joined  furniture  was  made  without  nails,  being  fastened  with 
mortise  and  tenon,  a  method  almost  as  old  as  furniture-making  itself.  Presses  and 
cupboards  continued  to  be  of  colossal  dimensions,  and  by  their  construction  offered 
scope  for  intricate  strap-work,  paneling  and  figure  work.  "Court"  and  "livery" 
cupboards  are  frequently  mentioned  in  sixteenth  century  inventories.  Many  are 
the  interpretations  by  modern  writers  of  the  words  "court"  and  "livery."  The 
former  is  sometimes  translated  "short,"  the  latter  "service."  Whatever  their 
original  meaning  may  have  been  it  is  certain  that  during  the  late  seventeenth 
century,  both  in  England  and  America,  the  words  "court"  and  "livery"  were  used 
interchangeably,  and  always  in  connection  with  a  high  cupboard  inclosed  with 
doors.  Many  early  allusions  to  this  piece  of  furniture  include  silverware.  In 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  a  servant  in  Capulet's  house  says:  "Away  with  joint  stools, 
remove  the  court  cupboard,  look  to  the  plate."  In  Chapman's  May  Day,  pub- 
lished in  1611,  occur  the  lines,  "And  so  for  the  feast,  you  have  your  court  cupboards 
planted  with  flagons,  cups,  beakers,  bowls,  goblets,  basins,  and  ewers";  and  again: 
"Here  shall  stand  my  court  cupboard,  with  its  furniture  of  plate."  Another  refer- 
ence reads,  "With  a  lean  visage  like  a  carved  face  on  a  court  cupboard." 

The  piece  of  furniture  thus  designated  in  Thomas  Cumberworth's  inventory  was 
doubtless  unlike  the  press,  and  from  the  fact  that  the  word  "wainscot"  is  not 
used,  was  probably  not  of  oak.  The  "thrown"  chairs  mentioned  were  of  the  turned 
variety.  This  inventory  is  interesting  as  it  shows  the  furniture  in  a  home  of 
an  Englishman  of  the  middle  class.  "Bedstocks"  were  built  into  the  wall  and  were 
the  common  beds  of  the  period,  setting  aside  the  pallets  of  straw  which  were  still 
used  by  the  lower  classes.  The  "great  bed"  mentioned  was  probably  of  carved 
oak  and  the  most  important  piece  of  furniture  in  the  house.  The  bedsteads  of 
Elizabeth's  day  were  huge  affairs,  many  of  them  of  great  value.  Some  of  the  finer 
ones  are  preserved  in  the  old  manor  houses  and  show  a  strange  mingling  of  Renais- 
sance and  Gothic.  In  the  homes  of  the  nobility  there  was  always  a  state  bed, 

90 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN  FURNITURE 


kept  in  readiness  for  a  possible 
visit  from  the  sovereign.  The  beds 
slept  in  by  Elizabeth  are  past 
counting,  and  Scottish  beds  asso- 
ciated with  Mary  Stuart  are  almost 
as  numerous. 

The  Stuart  period,  begin- 
ning with  James  I  and  ending 
with  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne, 
covered  more  than  a  century.  The 
early  Jacobean  style  was  an  out- 
growth of  the  Elizabethan.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  James  I  there 
was  little  change  in  furniture 
making.  With  the  accession  of 
Charles  I  the  Jacobean  style  be- 
came more  firmly  established. 
Homes  were  more  comfortably 
furnished  than  at  any  previous 
time  and  the  mode  of  living  was 
more  refined.  Queen  Henriette 
Marie  was  partly  responsible  for 
the  greater  refinement  of  the  court. 
England  was  far  behind  France 
in  the  small  comforts  of  life  and 
the  Queen's  influence  in  this  direc- 
tion was  beneficial;  so  also  was 
that  of  Van  Dyck.  The  great 
Flemish  painter  came  to  England 
at  this  period  in  order  to  paint  the  royal  family.  Those  matchless  portraits  of  the 
Stuart  children  did  not  comprise  all  of  Van  Dyck's  work  on  English  soil.  His 
visit  was  scarcely  less  momentous  than  that  of  Holbein  a  century  before. 

Inigo  Jones,  sometimes  called  "The  English  Palladio/'*  was  at  the  height  of  his 
fame  when  Charles  came  to  the  throne.  Christopher  Wren  was  born  seven  years 
later,  his  long  life  spanning  nearly  a  century,  1632-1723.  The  influence  of  these 
two  men  was  very  great,  not  only  upon  the  architecture  of  the  day,  but  upon  the 
decorative  arts,  and  especially  upon  furniture-making.  The  work  of  Jones  was 
more  closely  identified  with  the  early  Stuarts  and  that  of  Wren  with  the  later 
Jacobean  period. 

92 


SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  CUPBOARD 


HISTORIC    STYLES    IN  FURNITURE 


One  of  the  distinctive  features  of  Jacobean  furniture  was  the  spiral  leg  which 
is  seen  in  chairs,  cupboards,  and  chests  of  drawers.  The  finest  type  of  spiral  was 
not  of  the  turned  variety,  but  carved  by  hand.  The  most  interesting  pieces  of 
this  period  were  elevated  cupboards  standing  on  high  spiral  supports. 

During  the  Commonwealth  progress  was  retarded.  The  conditions  of  the  country 
were  not  such  as  to  foster  the  work  of  the  decorator  and  furniture-maker.  With 
the  Restoration  came  prosperity  and  a  renewed  interest  in  the  arts  of  peace. 
Charles  II  had  spent  a  large  part  of  his  life  in  France  and  was  thoroughly  imbued 
with  luxurious  ideas  which  he  had  profitably  studied  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV. 
Furniture  of  this  reign  is  somewhat  grotesque,  combining  a  medley  of  designs, 


TAPESTRY   WOVEN   BY   MARY  QUEEN    OF    SCOTS 

French,  English,  and  Flemish.  One  marked  change  for  good  was  the  tendency 
toward  lighter,  more  graceful  forms.  The  introduction  of  walnut  made  a  startling 
difference  in  furniture-designing.  The  wood  did  not  lend  itself  to  carving  and 
new  effects  were  obtained  by  veneer  and  inlay.  Cupboards  and  chests  of  the  late 
seventeenth  century  show  a  variety  of  decoration.  One  unique  scheme  of  orna- 
ment had  a  great  vogue  in  England  and  was  widely  copied  in  this  country.  A 
plain  surface  was  ornamented  with  turned  pieces  of  a  different  wood,  cut  in  the 
shape  of  ovals,  drops,  spindles,  and  nail  heads.  Sometimes  the  pieces  were  painted, 
in  order  to  give  variety  to  the  scheme.  According  to  Dr.  Irving  W.  Lyon,  the 
pioneer  writer  on  colonial  furniture  in  America,  drop  ornaments  were  first  used  by 
Peter  Koek,  a  Fleming,  who  decorated  his  furniture  with  carrot-shaped  pieces  of 
painted  wood.  "Nail  heads"  the  same  writer  traces  to  a  Norman  origin,  stating 
that  the  true  nail  head  was  diamond-shaped.  Some  of  this  applied-ornament  is 
highly  decorative,  and  marks  a  distinct  epoch  in  furniture-making.  Paneling 
during  the  Stuart  period  remained  in  favor  and  was  diversified  by  diamond- 

94 


FURNITURE  OF  SIXTEENTH  AND   SEVENTEENTH  CENTURIES 

shaped  moldings.    The  "rising"  panel  belongs  to  this  period  and  the  depressed  or 
sunken  panel  to  Elizabeth's  reign. 

A  characteristic  example  of  applied-ornament  is  shown  in  the  chest  of  draw- 
ers in  Memorial  Hall,  Deerfield,  Massachusetts.  According  to  tradition  this  piece 
of  furniture  was  brought  from  Scotland  in  the  late  seventeenth  century. 

The  adjective  "Jacobean"  has  been  variously  interpreted  by  furniture  writers;  some 
limiting  the  word  to  the  reigns  of  James  I  and  James  II,  others  using  it  in  a  broader 
sense  and  including  the  furniture  of  the  entire  Stuart  line.  The  term  is  used  in  the 
wider  meaning  in  this  chapter 

The  accession  of  William  of  Orange,  in  1688,  was  a  turning-point  in  English 
furniture-making.  The  best  that  Holland  possessed  passed  into  England,  and 
from  that  date  a  beautiful  simplicity  was  manifest  in  English  handicraft.  The 
Flemish  chair  of  cane  had  already  influenced  chair-making,  and  was  a  distinctive 
feature  of  the  late  Jacobean  period.  Prominent  among  Dutch  innovations  was 
the  cabriole  leg,  a  furniture  accessory  which  was  destined  to  revolutionize  the  chair, 
the  table,  and  the  chest  of  drawers.  Marquetry  was  freely  used  over  large  plain 
.surfaces,  and  with  its  popularity  paneling  declined  in  favor. 

Changes  in  furniture-making  are  gradual.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne  that  the  Dutch  and  English  designs  were  assimilated.  The  perfected  style 
is  known  by  the  name  of  this  sovereign  and  belongs  to  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 


95 


CHAPTER  IX 

LOUIS  XIV  FURNITURE 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  A  FORMAL  ROCOCO  IN  WHICH  PRO- 
PORTION" AND  BALANCE  WERE  SALIENT  FEATURES.  IMPORTANT 
DETAILS  WERE  THE  SHELL,  THE  CLASSIC  ACANTHUS,  THE  RAM's 
HEAD,  THE  MASK,  AND  THE  SATYR.  IN  THE  EARLY  PERIOD  FUR- 
NITURE WAS  MASSIVE  AND  THE  DESIGNS  OF  THE  LOUIS  XIII  STYLE 
WERE  PERPETUATED.  CARVING  WAS  LARGELY  SUPERSEDED  BY 
MARQUETRY  AND  BY  CHISELED  MOUNTS  OF  ORMOLU  AND  BRONZE. 


CHAPTER  IX 

LOUIS  XIV  FURNITURE 

THE  three  styles  known  respectively  as  Louis  XIV,  Louis  XV,  and  Louis 
XVI,  form  an  important  chapter  in  the  history  of  furniture-making.  The 
Louis  XIV  was  characterized  by  bold  effects,  lavish,  but  not  excessive, 
decoration,  and  faultless  execution.  Dignity  and  a  certain  massive  grandeur 
marked  the  work  of  the  best  "Quatorze"  furniture.  The  Louis  XV  was  the  cul- 
mination of  the  rococo  school  when  balance  and  proportion  were  considered  less 
important  than  beauty  of  detail.  The  Louis  XVI  was  a  return  to  simpler  designs 
and  a  more  restrained  type  of  ornament.  This  reaction  was  partly  due  to  the 
influence  of  Marie  Antoinette,  partly  to  the  newly  awakened  interest  in  classic 
forms,  prompted  by  the  discoveries  at  Pompeii,  and  partly  to  the  inevitable  swing- 
ing of  the  pendulum — from  an  extreme  taste  to  a  simpler  one. 

Louis  XIV  reigned  seventy-two  years,  and  during  that  time  fashions  in  cos- 
tumes and  in  furniture  changed  rapidly.  There  were,  however,  certain  qualities  that 
stamped  the  handicraft  of  the  period  and  which  rendered  it  distinctive.  Under 
Louis  XIV  all  the  industries  of  France  prospered.  This  was  in  a  great  measure 
the  result  of  Colbert's  able  administration.  It  was  Colbert  who  suggested  to  the 
king  the  wisdom  of  purchasing  the  Gobelin  manufactory  and  of  placing  Lebrun 
at  the  head  of  it  as  art  director;  Colbert  who  organized  the  lace  industries  in  the 
provinces,  thus  turning  into  French  coffers  the  vast  sums  that  had  been  previously 
expended  on  Italian  and  Flemish  laces;  Colbert  who  founded  the  Academy  of 
Painters  and  Sculptors — an  association  which  numbered  in  its  ranks  masters  of 
all  arts.  Thus  painters,  sculptors,  architects,  designers,  decorators,  engravers, 
and  wood-carvers  were  banded  together,  working  under  a  common  impulse.  The 
academy  first  occupied  an  apartment  in  the  Louvre,  but  later  centralized  its  efforts 
at  the  Gobelin  factory  where,  under  the  direction  of  Lebrun,  royal  orders  were 
executed.  Here  the  Louis  XIV  style  was  perfected.  Previous  to  this  date,  1667, 
the  standards  of  the  preceding  reign  had  influenced  design. 

Louis  was  five  years  of  age  when  his  father,  Louis  XIII,  died.  During  his 
minority  the  queen  regent  and  Cardinal  Mazarin  practically  ruled.  Anne  was  a 
woman  of  luxurious  tastes,  and  did  much  to  foster  the  increasing  desire  at  court 
for  costly  surroundings.  In  this  she  was  ably  assisted  by  Mazarin  whose  love 
for  richly  decorated  rooms  and  sumptuous  furniture  drew  heavily  on  the  national 
exchequer.  The  regency  was  brief,  for  Louis,  according  to  the  laws  of  France, 

99 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


reached  his  majority  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  but  during  that  period  he  had  learned 
a  lesson  in  extravagance  that  was  destined  to  bear  fruit  at  Versailles 

It  was  not  until  the  death  of  Mazarin  that  the  young  king  displayed  the  qualities 

of  leadership  which  made  him 
the  central  figure  in  Europe. 
No  previous  monarch  of  France 
had  so  dominated  other  nations. 
His  marriage  with  Marie  The- 
resa, daughter  of  Philip  IV, 
gave  him  a  hold  on  Spain 
and  Austria;  his  invasion  of 
Franche-Comte,  a  footing  in 
Flanders;  his  conquest  of  sev- 
eral Dutch  provinces,  a  grasp 
on  Holland;  his  purchase  of 
Dunkirk  from  Charles  II,  a 
loophole  in  England.  All  these 
interests  had  an  influence  on 
the  arts  of  the  day.  Spanish, 
Dutch,  Italian,  and  Scotch 
craftsmen  were  invited  to 
compete  with  French  artisans. 
It  was  the  desire  of  Colbert  to 
limit  foreign  importations,  and 
to  this  end  he  established  many 
native  industries.  Under  his 
administration  visiting  design- 
ers were  encouraged  to  stay 
until  the  secrets  of  their  work 
had  been  acquired.  They  were 
then  politely  dispatched  to  their 
own  country  laden  with  hon- 
ors, and  sometimes  pensioned. 

When  the  palace  of  Versailles  was  decorated  and  furnished,  few  foreigners  had  a 
part  in  the  work.  It  was  a  triumph  of  French  taste  and  skill,  and  as  such  it 
remains  to-day. 

Louis  XIII  had  erected  a  hunting-lodge  at  Versailles  and  later  remodeled  it 
into  a  chateau.  On  this  site,  and  keeping  intact  the  older  building,  the  present 
palace  was  built.  The  architect  was  Jules  Hardouin  Mansart  and  the  landscape- 

100 


CHAIR    IN   VERSAILLES,     REGENCY    OF   ANNE    OF   AUSTRIA 


LOUIS  XIV   FURNITURE 


gardener  Andre  Le  Notre.  The  greatest  artists  of  the  day  were  employed  in  dec- 
orating the  interior  and  the  greatest  designers  in  planning  the  furnishings.  The 
finest  products  of  the  silk  and  tapestry  looms  of  France  were  utilized  for  the  hang- 
ings. The  rarest  woods  of  the  world  were  selected  for  the  furniture.  Craftsmen 
of  the  kingdom  vied  with  each  other  in  perfecting  their  art  so  that  the  palace  of 
Le  Grand  Monarque  should  stand  unrivaled. 

Madame  de  Sevigne  who  penned  so 
many  graphic  pictures  of  court  life, 
wrote,  in  1676,  to  her  daughter:  "Let 
me  inform  you,  my  child,  of  a  change 
of  scene  which  will  appear  to  you  as 
agreeable  as  it  does  to  every  one.  I 
went  to  Versailles  on  Saturday.  This 
is  how  things  are  disposed.  You  are 
acquainted  with  the  toilette  of  ihe 
queen,  the  mass,  the  dinner;  but  it  is 
no  longer  necessary  to  be  bored  while 
their  majesties  are  at  table,  for  at  three 
o'clock,  the  king,  the  queen,  all  the 
princes  and  the  princesses  there  are, 
Madame  de  Montespan  and  all  her 
suite,  all  the  courtiers,  all  the  ladies,  in 
a  word,  what  is  called  the  court  of 
France,  find  themselves  in  that  fine 
apartment  of  the  king  that  you  know. 
All  is  furnished  divinely;  all  is  magnifi- 
cent." 

We  may  regret  that  Madame's 
daughter  was  familiar  with  the  "apart-  LOUIS  xiv  CLOCK 

ment  of  the   king,"    for   otherwise   a 

spirited  description  would  have  followed.  The  writer  describes  the  music  and 
games  with  which  the  court  is  entertained: 

"That  agreeable  confusion  without  confusion  of  all  that  is  most  select  lasts 
from  three  to  six.  At  that  hour  their  majesties  enter  their  carriages.  Some  go 
in  gondolas  on  the  canal,  wrhere  there  is  music.  At  ten  o'clock  all  return,  when 
a  comedy  is  performed;  midnight  strikes  and  then  all  is  over." 

The  apartment  to  which  Madame  de  SeVigne"  referred  was  undoubtedly  the 
Salon  de  la  Guerre,  mentioned  by  Mrs.  Kingsley  in  her  fine  description  of  the  palace. 

"Nowhere,"  she  says,  "has  interior  decoration  been  carried  to  a  further  point 

101 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


of  perfection  than  in  Versailles  where  we  are  offered  the  most  splendid  examples 
possible  of  the  Louis  XIV  style.  It  may  be  all  wrong  in  the  eyes  of  architectural 
purists,  but  for  sheer  magnificence  of  effect,  for  actual  richness  of  detail  in  marble 
and  painting,  in  gilded  stucco,  carved  wood,  superb  gilt-bronze,  it  cannot  be  sur- 
passed. Take,  for  example,  the 
Salon  de  Mars.  The  modillions 
of  the  grand  golden  cornice  are 
empty  casques.  And  in  the 
covings  of  the  ceiling  are  golden 
trophies  and  cupids  in  gilt 
stucco  riding  eagles  and  taming 
wolves.  Golden  wreaths  frame 
the  paintings  of  the  ceiling  by 
Audran,  depicting  Mars  in  his 
chariot.  Or,  again,  the  Salon 
d'Apollon,  with  its  ceiling 
by  Lafosse  and  its  winged 
muses  of  extreme  beauty,  on 
which  the  great  sculptor  Coy- 
sevox  did  not  refuse  to  work. 
But  all  this  glory  of  decorative 
art  culminates  in  the  Grand 
Galerie  and  the  Salon  de  la 
Guerre.  Here  decoration  with 
one  object  ever  in  view,  the 
glorification  of  the  king,  can 
scarcely  be  carried  further.  The 
coved  roof  represents  in  thirty 
subjects  the  history  of  the 
Grand  Monarque,  painted  un- 
der the  direction  of  Lebrun, 
from  his  most  carefully  prepared  designs.  Boileau  and  Racine  composed  the 
inscriptions  for  each  of  these  subjects,  which  are  set  in  carved  and  gilded 
sculpture  of  indescribable  richness  and  variety.  The  great  trophies  of  gilt-bronze 
upon  magnificent  colored  marbles  and  the  twenty-four  groups  in  gilded  stucco  are 
due  to  Coysevox.  The  capitals  of  the  pilasters,  the  frames  of  the  Venetian  mir- 
rors, all  the  details  of  ornament,  are  by  the  first  artists  of  the  day.  In  the  Salon 
de  la  Guerre,  in  Coysevox's  immortal  bas-relief,  the  king,  young,  radiant,  trium- 
phant, tramples  nations  in  chains  under  his  horse's  feet.  When  we  add  to  the 

102 


BOULLE    CONSOLE,    EARLY    LOUIS    XIV 


BUREAU,     LATE   LOUIS  XIV 

^ 

decorations  that  have  survived  war  and  revolution  all  that  have  been  lost,  the 
statues,  carved  cabinets  above  all,  the  famous  silver  mobilier  made  at  the  Gobe- 
lin's to  adorn  the  gallery,  we  get  an  idea  of  splendoralmost  unequaled.  Most  of 
the  treasures  are  dispersed  or  destroyed.  The  silver  furniture  was  sent  to  the 
mint  in  1690  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war  against  the  teague  of  Augsburg." 
In  contrast  with  these  regal  apartments  which  show  the  grandiose  side  of  the 
Louis  XIV  style  is  the  room  decorated  and  furnished  for  Madame  de  Maintenon,  in 
Fontainebleau.  Here  the  simple  phase  is  illustrated.  Barring  certain  details  in 
the  decorations,  such  as  the  "L"  and  the  crown,  this  room  is  doubtless  a 
prototype  of  the  salon  in  many  private  houses.  The  plain  panels,  the  simple 
mantel,  and  the  substantial  chairs  are  far  more  valuable  from  the  decorative 
standpoint  than  the  gilded  grandeur  of  the  Salon  de  la  Guerre. 

In  France  the  distinction  between  the  salon  de  compagnie  and  the  salon  de 
jamille  has  always  been  emphasized.     It  is  unfortunate  that  modern  decorators  in 

103 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


treating  a  room  in  Louis  XIV  or  Louis  XV  style  neglect  the  simple  aspect  of  the 
style,  which,  with  the  exception  of  state  apartments  and  ball-rooms,  is  the  only 
side  suitable  for  reproduction  in  an  American  home.  The  gorgeous  rooms  in  Ver- 
sailles are  chosen  as  models,  rather  than  the  plainer  apartments  in  Fontainebleau 
or  the  Trianons. 

Many  pieces  of  furniture  belonging  to  palace  and  to  private  house  were 
destroyed  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  but  enough  remain  to  show  the 
trend  of  the  Louis  XIV  period.  The  Renaissance  raised  furniture-making  to  the 
dignity  of  an  art,  but  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  that  furniture- 
makers  individually  ranked  as  artists.  Some  of  the  cabinet-makers  of  that  day 
were  as  renowned  as  the  painters,  and  one  at  least  made  a  name  for  himself  that 
has  outlived  the  fame  of  many  of  his  brothers  of  the  brush.  This  man  was  Andre 
Charles  Boulle.  In  1672  he  became  Sbeniste  to  the  king  and  was  granted  quarters 
in  the  Louvre.  The  royal  patent  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  "Engraver  in 
Ordinary  of  the  Royal  Seals,"  and  also  designated  him  as  "architect,  painter, 
carver  in  mosaic,  artist  in  cabinet-work/  chaser,  inlayer,  and  designer." 

Boulle  was  a  man  of  many  talents,  but  his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  a  unique 
marquetry  of  tortoise  shell  and  brass  with  which  he  ornamented  his  furniture. 
He  was  not  the  inventor  of  the  process,  but  he  carried  it  to  such  a  point  of  excel- 
lence that  the  name  of  the  originator  has  been  overlooked.  Doubtless  some  chest 
or  casket  of  oriental  workmanship  suggested  to  French  cabinet-makers  this  form 
of  decoration.  Royal  inventories  of  the  late  fourteenth  century  mention  Damascus 
caskets  of  shell  overlaid  with  silver.  Joan,  first  wife  of  Louis  XII,  numbered 
among  her  dower  chests  one  of  ivory  and  horn  inlaid  with  copper.  Boulle's  handi- 
work was  quite  unlike  oriental  marquetry  in  point  of  execution,  but  it  bore  a  slight 
resemblance  to  it  in  general  effect.  His  method  was  to  cover  the  piece  of  furni- 
ture to  be  decorated  with  a  veneer  of  shell,  over  which  brass  cuttings  were  fas- 
tened. Small  brass  nails  secured  the  metal  to  the  shell  background  and  these  were 
deftly  engraved  to  form  part  of  the  design.  Shells,  scrolls,  acanthus  foliage,  and 
other  characteristic  bits  of  ornament  were  represented  in  the  brass.  Metal  mounts 
and  moldings  were  a  feature  of  the  work.  Masks,  satyrs,  and  cupids  were  some  of 
the  designs  used  as  garnitures.  The  ram's  head  was  a  favorite  with  Boulle,  and 
may  be  found  on  many  of  his  pieces.  These  mounts  were  usually  of  ormolu,  a 
composition  of  gold,  mercury  and  copper  which  was  applied  to  the  brass  to  give 
it  the  appearance  of  gold.  Sometimes  the  process  of  veneer  was  reversed  and 
upon  a  brass  foundation  shell  was  appliqued.  When  the  shell  was  overlaid  with 
brass,  it  was  called  "first  part,"  or  "boulle,"  and  when  the  brass  formed  the  back- 
ground, with  shell  ornamentation,  it  was  termed  "second  part"  or  "counter." 
When  both  were  combined  in  the  same  piece  of  furniture  it  was  "boulle  and 

104 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


counter."  Other  terms  were  "new  boulle"  and  "old  boulle."  The  former  referred 
to  the  practice  of  placing  color  beneath  the  shell.  Brilliant  effects  were  obtained 
by  lining  the  shell  with  scarlet  or  gold-leaf.  This  combination  was  the  work  of 
Andre's  imitators,  and  found  little  favor  with  the  master  himself.  Boulle's  own 
handicraft  was  marked  by  a  refinement  which  his  followers  were  unable  to  copy. 
Many  of  Boulle's  designs  were  furnished  by  Lebrun  and  executed  under  his  super- 
vision. 

The  console  in  the  Louvre,  illustrated  on  page  102,  is  an  example  of  his  early 
work.  It  combines  "boulle"  and  "counter,"  and  is  a  representative  piece.  It  also 
shows  the  massive  type  of  furniture  in  vogue  during  the  early  Louis  XIV  period. 
The  console  depends  entirely  on  the  marquetry  and  metal  mounts  for  interest;  the 
outline  is  heavy  to  the  verge  of  cumbersome.  The  supports  are  of  the  pedestal 
order  and  are  a  survival  of  the  preceding  reign.  The  pedestal  support  is  important 
as  indicating  the  date  of  the  piece. 

Later  furniture  shows  a  curving  leg,  still  massive,  but  more  graceful.  The 
supports  of  the  early  eighteenth  century  are  more  slender,  and  approximate  the 
Louis  XV  style.  The  two  extremes  may  be  studied  in  the  console  mentioned 
and  in  the  bureau  on  page  103. 

The  chair  reproduced  belongs  to  the  early  Louis  XIV  period.  It  was  made 
during  the  regency  of  Anne  of  Austria,  and  has  the  heavy  supports  of  the  Louis 
XIII  period.  The  acanthus  leaf  is  the  chief  motive  in  the  decoration,  as  it  is  in 
most  of  the  chairs  of  that  day.  The  leaf  is  well  modeled  and  is  in  low  relief,  a 
marked  contrast  to  its  later  development  when  endless  foliations  replaced  the 
severer  handling.  Beauvais  tapestry  forms  the  upholstery  and  fringe  in  corre- 
sponding colors  adds  a  finish  to  the  seat  and  back. 

Later  chairs  show  a  bolder  treatment  of  the  acanthus  and  a  more  ornate 
frame.  The  pedestal  supports  are  still  in  evidence,  but  the  lines  have  changed 
somewhat.  The  arms  have  a  deeper  curve  and  have  lost  something  in  beauty.  It 
is  a  point  worthy  of  notice  that  the  arms  of  the  Renaissance  chairs  were  quite 
straight,  and  that  the  curve  was  of  gradual  growth.  Chair  legs  in  France  re- 
mained straight  until  late  in  the  seventeenth  century  -  when  the  general  tendency 
towards  flowing  lines  altered  the  supports  of  chairs,  tables,  and  cabinets.  During 
the  last  fifteen  years  of  Louis  XIV's  reign  (1700-1715)  every  article  of  furniture, 
except  the  bed,  conformed  to  rococo  outlines.  Rococo  ornament  had  long  held 
sway,  but  shapes  as  a  whole  had  been  severe. 

The  bed  had  undergone  several  changes.  The  lower  posts  were  discarded  and 
the  canopy  was  suspended  from  the  cornice.  The  bed  in  the  king's  chamber  at 
Versailles  shows  to  what  an  extent  the  decoration  of  this  article  of  furniture  could 
be  carried.  The  headboard  of  this  royal  structure  is  carved  in  the  best  manner 

106 


HEADBOARD,   LOUIS  XIV  BEDSTEAD,  VERSAILLES 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


of  the  period.  The  mask  with  radiations,  surrounded  by  the  laurel  wreath,  the 
acanthus  scrolls,  and  the  shell  are  all  characteristic.  The  mask  represented  the 
sun  and  the  radiations  the  beams.  This  was  a  compliment  to  his  majesty  whose 
power  was  without  limit.  The  hangings  of  the  bed  are  of  Gobelin  tapestry  and 
Lyons  velvet. 

Ebony,  oak,  walnut,  and  chestnut  were  the  woods  most  in  favor  with  furniture- 
makers.  Rare  woods,  like  sandal  and  tulip,  were  used  as  panels  to  give  color  and 
variety.  When  to  this  combination  onyx,  porphyry,  and  lapis  lazuli  were  added, 
the  whole  ornamented  with  ormolu  frames  and  mounts,  only  a  prophet  in  furni- 
ture could  have  predicted  that  a  succeeding  style  would  carry  decoration  a  point 
further. 

The  Louis  XIV  style  was  suited  to  the  monarch  who  delighted  in  being  called 
le  grand  and  who  desired  to  be  painted  in  the  character  of  Jove  hurling  thunder- 
bolts at  trembling  Europe.  It  was  fitted  for  palaces  but,  save  in  its  plainest 
aspect,  was  little  suited  for  the  homes  of  those  born  outside  the  purple. 

That  elaborate  furniture  was  not  confined  to  the  court  may  be  gathered  from 
letters  and  inventories  of  the  celebrated  cabinet-makers  of  the  day.  Boulle  made 
many  pieces  for  the  wealthy  citizens  of  Paris,  particularly  in  the  later  years  of 
his  life  when  the  king's  fancy  had  turned  to  the  work  of  younger  men.  Boulle 
lived  to  be  ninety  years  of  age,  surviving  his  royal  patron  more  than  a  decade. 
The  list  of  cabinets,  consoles  and  armoires  designed  by  him  is  a  long  one.  Much 
of  his  work,  like  that  of  his  contemporaries,  was  destroyed  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution. 


108 


CHAPTER  X 

LOUIS  XV  FURNITURE 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  THE  EXTREME  ROCOCO  IN  WHICH 
THE  PRINCIPAL  DETAILS  WERE  THE  BROKEN  SHELL,  THE  CURLED 
ENDIVE,  AND  THE  SPIRAL  SCROLL.  BALANCE  AND  SYMMETRY 
WERE  LESS  IMPORTANT  IN  THE  EYES  OF  FURNITURE-MAKERS 
THAN  RICHNESS  OF  ORNAMENT  AND  FAULTLESS  EXECUTION. 
ANGLES  GAVE  PLACE  TO  CURVES,  AND  THE  TALENTS  OF  THE 
GOLDSMITH  AND  THE  PAINTER  WERE  UTILIZED  IN  DESIGNING 
FURNITURE  WHICH,  IN  POINT  OF  WORKMANSHIP,  HAS  NEVER 
BEEN  SURPASSED. 


CHAPTER  X 

LOUIS  XV  FURNITURE 

INHERE  were  no  clearly  defined  lines  between  the  Louis  XIV  and   the  Louis 
XV  styles  of  furniture.     The  sweeping  curves  and  ornate  decorations  which 
characterized  the  designs  of  the  early  "Quinze"  period  were  the  natural  out- 
growth  of    the   late  "Quatorze"  epoch.      From    the    time    that  Pierre    Mignard 
succeeded  Lebrun,  as  art  director,  a  gradual  change  had  taken  place  in  all  handi- 
craft.    Instead  of  one  controlling  force  there  were  a  dozen  influences.     Designers, 
free  from  the  restraint  of  obeying  one  master  mind,  worked  on  independent  lines. 
In  rare  cases  this  was  productive  of  good.     The  arts  as  a  whole  suffered  seriously. 
With  the  death  of  the  Grand  Monarque  the  last  of  the  seventeenth-century  tradi- 
tions passed  away. 

Louis  XV,  like  his  great  predecessor,  was  only  five  years  of  age  when  he  was 
proclaimed  king.  During  his  minority  the  office  of  regent  devolved  upon  the  duke 
of  Orleans.  This  term  of  eight  years,  1715-1723,  was  an  important  period  in  the 
history  of  decorative  art,  The  old  court  with  its  stately  ceremonies,  its  pomp 
and  magnificence  was  gone,  and  in  its  place  was  a  new  court  bent  on  the  lightest 
and  gayest  amusements.  The  formal  arrangement  of  rooms,  the  classic  treat- 
ment of  walls  and  furniture,  found  little  favor  with  the  regent  and  his  followers. 
To  conform  to  the  tastes  of  the  day  decorators  introduced  the  extreme  rococo. 
The  broken  shell 'the  twisted  acanthus,  the  curled  endive,  and  the  flowing  scroll 
formed  a  part  of  interior  woodwork.  The  cornice,  the  wainscot,  the  mantel, 
the  moldings  of  windows  and  doors,  the  frames  of  panels  and  pictures,  em- 
bodied one  and  the  same  idea.  To  harmonize  with  this  setting  furniture  was, 
of  necessity,  constructed  on  similar  lines.  Plain  surfaces  were  abhorred.  Every- 
thing glittered  with  elaborate  mounts  of  bronze  and  ormolu;  everything  was  orna- 
mented to  such  a  degree  that  its  real  purpose  became  a  secondary  consideration. 
Several  pieces  of  furniture  were  sometimes  combined  in  one  in  order  to  give  wood 
and  metal-workers  greater  scope  for  ingenuity.  Some  of  the  regency  designs  are 
strange  combinations  of  writing-desks,  bureaus,  and  timepieces.  The  workman- 
ship of  this  fantastic  furniture  is  of  a  high  order;  the  greatest  artists  of  the  day 
bestowed  their  skill  upon  it.  While  it  does  not  surpass  in  beauty  of  execution 
the  work  of  the  masterly  band  who  designed  furniture  for  Louis  XIV,  it  equals 
it  in  many  ways.  A  few  of  the  great  cabinet-makers,  who  were  associated  with 
Lebrun,  lived  to  execute  orders  for  the  regent,  and  also  for  Louis  XV. 

Ill 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


Charles  Cressent,  a  pupil  of  Boulle,  and  one  of  his  most  noted  followers  was 
closely  identified  with  the  style  of  the  regency.  Dubois  and  the  elder  Caffieri  were 
among  the  number  who  adapted  their  methods  to  the  tastes  of  the  time.  Boulle 

was  less  flexible.  With  the 
spirit  of  the  day  he  was 
never  in  touch.  His  work 
belongs  so  entirely  to  the 
"Quatorze"  period,  it  is  such 
a  complete  expression  of  the 
formalism  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  associate  him  with  the 
succeeding  epoch.  He  pro- 
duced much  that  was  fine 
in  the  latter  years  of  his  life, 
but  it  bears  little  resem- 
blance to  the  handicraft  of 
his  contemporaries. 

Among  the  painters  of 
the  regency  who  lent  their 
talents  to  the  embellishing 
of  walls  and  furniture  were 
Lancret  and  Watteau. 
Among  the  hosts  of  interior 
decorators, who  designed  fur- 
niture were  Meissonier,  de 
Cotte,  Boffrand,  Oppenord, 
and  Pineau.  Meissonier  was 
the  real  leader  of  the  rococo 
school.  To  him  is  credited 
the  introduction  of  the 

GOBELIN   TAPESTRY   DESIGNED   BY   BOUCHER   AND    TESSIER,  broken   Shell,  and    the  COUnt- 

1757.    EXECUTED  BY  NEiLsoN  less  twists  and  twirls  which 

were  such  a  feature  of  French 

decoration  during  the  eighteenth  century.  His  defiance  of  the  rules  of  balance 
and  proportion  delighted  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who  gave  him  many  commissions. 
Meissonier  disregarded  all  principles  of  symmetry  and  sought  to  obtain  novel 
effects  by  introducing  startling  contrasts.  One  side  of  a  cabinet  or  console  would 
often  be  treated  in  a  manner  quite  different  from  the  other.  He  was  consistent 

112 


LOUIS  XV  SOFA,    PETIT  TRIANON 

only  in  that  he  carried  his  scheme  of  contrasts  to  a  very  fine  point.  In 
furnishing  a  room  every  detail  conformed  to  this  erratic  treatment.  Meissonier 
-achieved  considerable  fame  and  lived  to  see  his  work  extolled  and  condemned. 
That  he  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  arts  of  the  day  his  many  enemies 
could  not  deny.  Flemish,  German,  and  English  cabinet-makers  borrowed 
extensively  from  him.  Chippendale,  in  his  early  days,  patterned  many  of  his 
designs  after  Meissonier.  His  book  of  drawings  for  furniture,  The  Gentle- 
man and  Cabinet-maker's  Director,  bears  more  than  a  chance  resemblance  to 
the  work  of  the  Frenchman.  Some  of  the  designs  for  state  beds,  bureaus,  and 
commodes  surpass  the  most  extravagant  conceptions  of  Meissonier,  and  emphasize 
the  fact  that  rococo  ornament  in  the  hands  of  the  English  passed  even  beyond  the 
limit  placed  upon  it  by  the  French. 

The  work  of  the  great  furniture-makers  of  the  regency  and  of  the  Louis  XV 
period  had  certain  qualities  of  elegance  and  grace,  which  foreign  wood-workers  were 
unable  to  imitate.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  German  and  Italian  handi- 
craft of  the  day.  The  German  rococo  and  the  Italian  baroque  combine  all  the 
faults  of  the  style  rocaille  without  any  of  its  redeeming  features.  There  was  no 
suggestion  of  heaviness  in  the  most  ornate  piece  of  French  furniture.  Fantastic 
as  the  design  often  was  there  was  no  hint  of  absurdity  in  its  construction  or  decora- 
tion. Possessing  a  discrimination  which  the  German  and  the  Italian  did  not  share, 
the  Frenchman  was  able  to  preserve  the  narrow  line  that  separated  the  extrava- 

113 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


gant  from  the  grotesque.  Symmetry,  which  was  such  an  important  factor  in  the 
eyes  of  the  furniture-makers  of  the  Louis  XIV  period,  was  lacking  in  the  work  of 
many  of  the  later  craftsmen. 

Louis  XIV  carried  his  love  of  balance  to  such  a  point  that  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon  once  wrote,  "The  king  will  have  us  all  buried  in  symmetry."  Such  fine 
distinctions  did  not  trouble  Louis  XV,  nor  the  men  and  women  of  his  court, 
whose  favor  or  disapproval  made  or  marred  the  success  of  an  artist. 

The  group  of  men — decorators,  designers,  furniture-makers,  workers  in  metal 
and  marquetry — who  spent  their  lives  in  the  endeavor  to  please  a  capricious  court 
formed  a  large  and  notable  body.  Within  the  compass  of  a  single  chapter  it  is 
not  possible  to  give  more  than  a  brief  mention  of  the  great  artist-artisans  of  this 
period.  Many  volumes  would  be  needed  to  treat  in  an  adequate  way  French  handi- 
craft of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  subject  of  furniture  alone,  if  presented  in 
all  its  phases,  would  demand  a  chapter  on  the  great  tapestry  industries  of  France, 
another  on  Sevres  porcelain,  a  third  on  metals,  and  a  fourth  on  lacquer.  Wood 
alone  formed  but  an  insignificant  part  in  the  making  of  a  large  portion  of  the  Louis 
XV  furniture.  Marquetry  had  its  place,  but  the  pieces  in  which  marquetry  alone 
is  used  for  ornamentation  are  very  rare.  The  talents  of  the  tapestry-weaver,  of  the 
potter,  and  of  the  goldsmith,  were  utilized  to  produce  those  marvelous  cabinets 
and  commodes  which  to-day,  when  offered  for  sale,  bring  prices  which  can  scarcely 
be  expressed  in  less  than  four  figures. 

Among  the  men  who  made  this  sumptuous  furniture  may  be  mentioned  Rie- 
sener,  Cressent,  Leleu,  Oeben,  Rontgen,  Duplessis,  Pasquier,  Carlin,  Hervieu, 
Gouthiere,  and  the  Caffieri.  Jacques  and  Philippe  Caffieri  belonged  to  a  famous 
family  of  metal-workers.  Jacques  was  a  son  of  Filippo  Caffieri,  who  came  to  France 
from  Italy  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  He  had  served  Pope 
Alexander  VII  with  distinction  but,  tempted  by  the  reports  of  the  generosity  of 
Louis  XIV,  joined  the  band  of  workers  at  the  Gobelins.  For  more  than  a  century 
the  name  of  Caffieri  was  closely  associated  with  French  furniture.  The  metal 
mounts  and  moldings  which  came  from  the  workshop  of  Jacques  and  his  son 
Philippe  were  not  surpassed  by  those  of  any  other  designer.  The  exquisite  finish  of 
their  metal-work  was  notable  in  an  age  when  beauty  of  execution  was  the  rule 
rather  than  the  exception.  The  commode  with  bombe  or  curving  front  was  the  usual 
medium  chosen  by  them  to  display  their  intricate  garnitures  of  bronze  and  ormolu. 

Pierre  Gouthiere  followed  the  methods  of  the  Caffieri.  He  and  Riesener  were 
younger  men  and  were  identified  with  both  the  Louis  XV  and  the  Louis  XVI 
styles.  Gouthiere  executed  many  beautiful  pieces  of  furniture  for  the  duchess 
du  Barry.  At  the  time  of  her  execution  she  owed  seven  hundred  and  fifty-six 
thousand  livres  for  furniture  designed  and  ornamented  by  him.  The  government 

114 


LOUIS  XV   FURNITURE 


refused  to  pay  this  sum,  and  after  end- 
less lawsuits  the  ill-fated  Gouthiere  died 
in  poverty.  His  work  lacked  the 
strength  of  that  of  Philippe  Caffieri  and 
Charles  Cressent,  but  it  was  marked  by 
elegance  and  great  delicacy.  A  dull 
gold  finish,  which  he  is  said  to  have 
invented,  makes  it  possible  to  distin- 
guish his  unsigned  work.  In  1858  the 
marquis  of  Hertford  desired  to  have  a 
replica  of  one  of  Gouthiere's  most  fa- 
mous pieces,  the  "Cabinet  d'Artois,"  at 
Windsor.  To  produce  this  copy,  years 
were  given  to  the  task,  and  the  cost, 
including  the  delicately  chased  mounts, 
was  three  thousand  pounds. 

Jean  Riesener  was  born  in  Glaud- 
beck,  near  Cologne  and  bore  somewhat 
the  same  relation  to  Louis  XV  that 
Boulle  did  to  Louis  XIV  and  Vouet  to 
Louis  XIII.  Among  the  cabinet-makers 

who   served    the    capricious    king,    no  LOUIS  xv  CHAIR,  GARDE-MEUBLE 

one  pleased  his  fancy  more  than  this  transplanted  German.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Jean  Pran9ois  Oeben,  and  after  the  death  of  his  master,  succeeded  to 
the  title  of  ebenistc  du  Roi.  Less  is  known  of  Oeben  than  of  many 
others  who  filled  positions  of  minor  importance. 

The  celebrated  bureau  du  Roi  was  begun  by  Oeben  and  finished  by  Riesener. 
Few  pieces  of  furniture  have  been  the  theme  of  so  many  discussions.  Signed 
"Riesener  1769  a  I'Arse'nal  de  Paris"  it  is  only  in  late  years  that  Oeben  has  been 
given  a  share  in  its  glory.  No  article  of  handicraft  belonging  to  the"  Quinze"  period 
has  been  the  cause  of  so  much  conjecture.  Column  after  column  has  been  printed 
to  prove  this  theory  and  that.  Sometimes  all  the  honors  are  given  to  Riesener; 
again  he  is  stripped  of  his  laurels  and  they  are  handed  to  Oeben;  again  they  are 
divided  among  Riesener,  Duplessis,  and  Hervieu.  It  is  now  believed  that  the 
conception  of  the  design  was  due  to  Oeben,  that  Reisener  completed  the  task,  that 
Duplessis  modeled  the  mounts,  and  that  the  casting  was  done  by  Hervieu. 

The  "bureau"  is  in  reality  a  secretary  of  unusual  pattern.  Viewed  as  an  object 
of  art  it  is  a  marvelous  piece  of  work.  The  mounts  are  of  bronze  of  a  most  elab- 
orate character.  Reclining  figures  of  great  beauty,  medallions,  vases,  wreaths,  and 

115 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


garlands  are  the  metal  ornaments  of  this  remarkable  piece  of  furniture.  Lavish 
as  the  description  sounds  there  is  a  suggestion  in  the  treatment  of  the  whole  design 
of  the  simplicity  of  the  Louis  XVI  period.  Could  the  vases  and  the  figures  be 
removed  the  bureau  would  show  little  trace  of  the  style  rocaille.  Had  the  date 
been  1750  instead  of  1769  it  would  doubtless  have  been  treated  in  the  true  rococo 
spirit.  The  bureau  du  Roi  is  typical  of  the  work  of  the  time  in  the  skill  shown  in 
the  decoration  of  the  back. 

No  hidden  corners  were  shirked  by  French  craftsmen.  The  care  bestowed 
upon  the  framework  of  furniture  may  be  noted  in  the  illustrations  of  the  chairs 
from  the  Garde-Meuble.  They  have  lost  something  in  beauty  by  being  robbed 
of  their  upholstery.  As  furniture  studies  they  have  gained  in  value.  They  show 
just  what  French  furniture-makers  borrowed  from  the  Flemish  and  what  they  in 
turn  gave  to  the  English.  They  have  the  curving  legs  which  superseded  the  ped- 
estal support  of  the  Louis  XIV  period,  and  the  rococo  carving  which  supplanted 
the  classic  acanthus  leaf.  It  is  a  mild  rococo,  however,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
straight-back  chair,  worthy  of  faithful  reproduction.  Similar  in  treatment  is  the 
sofa  from  the  Petit  Trianon  which  was  designed  for  du  Barry.  It  is  of  French 
walnut  and  the  upholstery  is  deep  old  rose.  These  pieces  represent  the  simple 
side  of  the  style. 

"Rococo"  is  an  elastic  term  and  one  that  has  been  applied  to  every  stage  of 
rock  and  shell  decoration  from  the  time  of  Louis  XIII  to  the  declining  days  of 
Louis  XV.  With  many  people  the  word  is  wholly  associated  with  modern  con- 
ceptions. The  Louis  XV  furniture  of  the  shops  is  fearful  to  contemplate,  and 
when  brought  into  juxtaposition  with  the  furnishings  of  the  usual  house,  becomes 
what  Marjorie  Fleming  termed  the  multiplication  table,  "Something  that  human 
nature  cannot  endure."  Even  genuine  pieces  of  old  French  furniture  cannot  be 
placed  with  impunity  side  by  side  with  the  household  gods  of  to-day. 

Styles  of  decoration  and  furniture  are  the  outgrowth  of  conditions.  The  Louis 
XV  style  of  furniture  was  the  direct  result  of  definite  causes.  When  studied 
against  the  background  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  becomes  one  of  the  most  fasci- 
nating in  history.  It  may  not  appeal  to  one  in  the  same  way  that  the  styles  of 
the  early  Renaissance  and  Georgian  periods  do;  it  may  not  fit  into  every-day  life 
as  does  the  colonial;  it  will  not  bear  reproducing  except  under  the  most  exacting 
conditions;  but  that  it  has  a  distinct  charm  of  its  own  cannot  be  gainsaid.  It 
must  be  studied  with  the  life  and  art  of  the  period  constantly  in  mind — the  pleasure- 
loving  Louis  spending  a  fortune  on  the  whims  of  de  Pompadour  and  her  extrava- 
gant successor,  du  Barry;  the  great  artists  of  the  day,  like  Lancret  and  Boucher, 
turning  from  vast  canvases  to  decorate  a  fan  or  a  snuff-box;  the  great  metal- 
workers, Caffieri  and  Gouthiere,  bestowing  the  same  care  upon  a  sconce  or  candlestick 

116 


LOUIS   XV    FURNITURE 


LOUIS    XV  ARM-CHAIR,    GARDE-MEUBLE 


that  they  gave  to  some  momentous 
commission;  the  foremost  tapestry- 
weavers  devoting  months  to  the  up- 
holstery of  a  footstool.  Trifles  were 
matters  of  such  consequence  that  they 
assumed  the  importance  of  serious 
undertakings. 

That  furniture  should  receive  the 
careful  attention  of  great  painters  like 
Watteau,  Lancret,  and  Boucher  was  the 
natural  result  of  an  age  that  placed  so 
high  a  value  on  the  perfection  of  detail. 
If  the  walls  of  a  room  were  worthy  of 
their  regard  the  furnishings  were  no  less 
so.  Many  of  the  most  treasured  pieces 
of  the  regency  and  of  the  Louis  XV  pe- 
riod bear  decorations  by  Watteau  and 
Boucher.  Screens  and  cabinets  were 
painted  in  the  manner  which  they  had 
made  famous.  Boucher's  cupids  and 
Watteau's  shepherdesses  have  more 

than  a  passing  interest.  They  seem  the  very  essence  of  the  art  of  the  day.  Wat- 
teau's  untimely  death  occurred  early  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV,  but  a  host  of  pu- 
pils perpetuated  his  methods. 

Painted  furniture  formed  a  distinct  class.  Equally  unique  were  the  pieces  which 
were  enriched  with  plaques  and  panels  of  porcelain.  Madame  de  Pompadour 
was  largely  responsible  for  the  introduction  of  this  fragile  furniture.  She  was  at 
the  height  of  her  power  when  the  beautiful  soft  paste  porcelain  of  the  Sevres  manu- 
factory was  perfected.  In  striving  for  novel  decorations  in  the  furnishing  of  her 
apartment  her  fancy  turned  to  rare  china.  Marquetry,  foreign  lacquers,  carvings, 
and  paintings  were  for  the  moment  discarded.  Sevres  porcelain  was  chosen  to 
form  the  embellishment  of  cabinets,  writing-desks,  and  the  many  other  articles 
which  found  place  in  the  elegant  boudoir  of  the  king's  favorite. 

One  class  of  furniture  not  yet  mentioned  was  designated  as  Vernis-Martin. 
For  more  than  a  century  cabinet-makers  had  sought  to  obtain  a  lustre  which  would 
give  to  their  work  the  appearance  of  Chinese  lacquer.  During  the  reign  of  Francois 
I  a  few  pieces  of  Chinese  furniture  were  imported  from  Portugal.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century,  as  trade  between  Holland  and  China  increased,  many  articles  of 
Chinese  origin  found  their  way  to  France  where  they  were  highly  prized.  So 

117 


HISTORIC   STYLES  IN   FURNITURE 


great  was  the  demand  for  oriental  lac  that  panels  of  Chinese  woodwork  were  in- 
serted in  French  furniture.  This  was  a  combination,  however,  that  could  not 
long  be  tolerated.  A  Dutch  cabinet-maker  named  Huygens  is  credited  with  being 
the  first  to  discover  a  preparation  which  had  the  qualities  of  lacquer.  The  Martin 
family  of  Paris,  after  years  of  experimenting,  perfected  a  composition  which  was 
called  Vernis-Martin,  or  Martin's  varnish.  This  invention  placed  them  in  an  inde- 
pendent position.  They  were  carriage-painters  but  with  the  success  of  their  lacquer 

they  became  cabinet-makers.  In  the  painting  of  car- 
riages they  had  a  field  for  considerable  skill,  for  vehicles 
of  all  kinds  were  elaborately  ornamented  in  the  time 
of  Louis  XV.  Coaches  and  sedan  chairs  received  as 
careful  a  scheme  of  decoration  as  the  interior  of  houses. 
Frequently  the  scheme  was  the  same.  The  craze  for 
repeating  the  inevitable  scrolls  and  shells  extended  to 
every  possible  object,  without  reference  to  its  size, 
purpose,  or  construction.  This  was  where  the  rococo 
school  differed  from  all  others  under  the  sun.  When 
my  lady  sat  in  her  boudoir  she  was  surrounded  with 
dancing  cupids  and  rose  garlands,  with  gilded  wreaths 
and  painted  scrolls.  When  she  was  carried  through  the 
streets  of  Paris  in  her  sedan  chair  she  was  still  be- 
wreathed  and  be-scrolled.  Cupids  danced,  and  pastoral 
maids  simpered,  and  if  they  were  not  the  cupids  and 
pastoral  maids  of  Boucher  and  Watteau  they  were  such 
a  clever  copy  that  the  effect  was  precisely  the  same. 

In  the  decorating  of  such  sumptuous  vehicles  the 
Martins  had  served  a  long  apprenticeship.     It  is  not  to 

LOUIS  XV   CLOCK  •         1    j,  xv  i- 

be  wondered   at   that,  in   later  years,  they  achieved 

renown  not  only  for  the  beauty  and  durability  of  their  lacquer,  but  for  the  skill 
with  which  they  painted  figures  and  landscapes.  They  were  followed-  by  many 
imitators,  and  "Vernis-Martin"  pieces,  so  called,  became  very  common,  but  like  all 
imitations  they  lacked  the  spirit  of  the  originals. 

The  small  articles  of  furniture  of  Louis  XV's  time  —  the  clocks,  chandeliers, 
candelabra,  sconces,  and  mirrors — were  as  skilfully  constructed  as  the  large  pieces. 
The  workmanship  of  these  bronze  and  gilt  objects  was  carried  to  a  high  state  of 
perfection.  In  some  of  them  there  was  beauty  of  line  as  well  as  matchless  execution. 
It  is  interesting  to  compare  a  clock  of  this  period,  here  illustrated,  with  the  Louis 
XIV  timepiece  in  the  preceding  chapter.  The  difference  between  "Quatorze" 
and  "Quinze",  as  exemplified  in  small  things,  is  clearly  set  forth. 

118 


LOUIS   XV  FURNITURE 


Both  clocks  belong  to  the  bracket  class ;  both  are  of  the  same  size  and  mechanical 
-construction;  both  are  ornamented  with  marquetry  and  metal  mounts.  The 
Louis  XV  has  more  sweeping  curves;  the  mounts,  instead  of  closely  outlining  the 
woodwork,  form  an  independent  feature  of  the  decoration;  the  acanthus  leaf,  as  a 
motif,  is  abandoned  and  the  curled  endive  takes  its  place.  These  articles  are 
typical  of  the  two  styles.  They  are  chosen  from  the  middle  periods.  Late 
Louis  XIV  furniture  resembled  early  Louis  XV,  and  late  Louis  XV  approached 
the  Louis  XVI.  The  rococo  school,  by  its  very  extravagance,  brought  about  a 
reaction  that  was  destined  to  transform  furniture-making. 


119 


CHAPTER  XI 

LOUIS  XVI  FURNITURE 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  SIMPLICITY  OF  CONSTRUCTION 
AND  SEVERITY  OF  ORNAMENT.  ROCOCO  DETAILS  DISAPPEARED 
AND  CLASSIC  EMBLEMS  REPLACED  THEM.  IMPORTANT  FEATURES 
WERE  THE  FLUTED  COLUMN,  THE  BAY  LEAF,  THE  OAK  AND  ACORN, 
THE  BELL  FLOWER  OR  "CORN  HUSK,"  THE  GREEK  BAND,  AND  THE 
PLAIN  ACANTHUS.  STRAIGHT  LINES  SUPERSEDED  CURVES  AND 
ORNAMENT  WAS  A  MEANS  NOT  AN  END. 


CHAPTER  XI 

LOUIS  XVI  FURNITURE 

TO  Marie  Antoinette  has  long  been  accorded  the  honor  of  the  pseudo-classic 
revival  in  France.     Recent  writers  on  French  handicraft  of  the  eighteenth 
century  doubt  the  young  queen's  part  in  the  matter,  and  point  out  the  fact 
that  the   return  to  simpler  forms   took  place  several  years  before  the  Austrian 
princess  married  the  dauphin. 

The  Louis  XVI  style  of  decoration  was  of  gradual  growth.  It  is  not  possible 
to  mark  the  date  when  the  old  standards  gave  place  to  the  new.  It  is  an  extremely 
interesting  development,  for  in  its  perfected  form  it  differed  as  widely  from  the 
Louis  XV  style  as  did  the  early  Renaissance  from  the  Gothic.  Whether  the  style 
owed  its  existence  to  the  influence  of  Marie  Antoinette,  or  to  the  discoveries  of 
antique  ornament  at  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum,  or  to  the  natural  reaction  from  an 
extreme  taste  to  a  simpler  one,  are  questions  which  are  not  of  vital  importance  to-day. 
Doubtless  many  causes  were  instrumental  in  giving  birth  to  the  Louis  XVI  school. 
As  the  limit  of  extravagance  had  been  reached  any  change  was  necessarily  towards 
plainer  models.  A  return  to  simplicity  in  decorative  art  meant  a  return  to  the 
antique. 

In  the  eighteenth-century  Renaissance,  Greece,  not  Rome  was  the  inspiration. 
Straight  lines  replaced  the  flowing  scrolls  which  had  so  long  dominated  interior  deco- 
ration. Horizontal  bands  superseded  the  broken  and  tortured  moldings.  Irregular 
panels,  painted  witti  cupids  and  rose  garlands,  gave  way  to  rectangular  spaces  orna- 
mented with  classic  emblems.  Furniture-makers  discarded  curves  and  adopted 
severe  outlines.  The  endive  and  the  twisted  acanthus  disappeared;  the  laurel  and 
the  oak  leaf  replaced  them.  To  the  Greek  band  was  given  the  prominence  pre- 
viously allotted  to  the  shell.  The  fluted  column  was  made  a  constructive  part  of 
nearly  every  piece  of  furniture.  In  the  chair  and  the  table  the  supports  were 
fluted,  tapering  slightly  at  the  base.  In  the  cabinet  the  column  had  the  character  of 
a  pilaster,  sometimes  tapering,  sometimes  resting  on  claw-feet.  The  oak  leaf  was 
seldom  used  in  the  decoration  of  the  chair,  but  in  the  cabinet,  armoire,  console,  and 
bureau,  it  wras  made  a  very  ornamental  feature.  The  laurel  or  the  bay  leaf  was 
also  effectively  used  and  on  rare  occasions  the  acanthus,  in  a  severe  form,  was 
revived.  But  to  the  oak  leaf  was  given  chief  preference  and  it  is  interesting  to 
study  its  development  in  small  as  well  as  large  pieces  of  furniture.  In  the  decoration 
of  clocks,  mirrors,  and  sconces  it  was  an  important  and  beautiful  accessory. 

123 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN  FURNITURE 


The  cabinet  from  Fontainebleau  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  Louis  XVI  style. 
The  fluted  columns  have  no  ornamentation  except  crossed  bands  of  ribbon.  The 
oak  leaf  appears  in  both  a  natural  and  conventionalized  manner.  The  metal  work 
is  simple  and  exceedingly  good.  The  gold  is  of  two  shades,  red-gold  in  the  mold- 
ings and  green-gold  in  the  mounts.  The  claw-feet  which  are  in  the  shape  of  eagle's 
talons  are  very  spirited.  An  unusual  effect  is  gained  by  the  insertion  of  dark 
panels  which  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  design.  (See  page  126.) 

The  Louis  XV  furniture-maker  would  not  have  been  content  to  leave  the  broad 
center  panel  undecorated.  Marquetry  and  elaborate  mounts  would  have  been 
necessary  adjuncts  in  his  eyes.  The  charm  of  flat  unadorned  spaces  was  unknown 
to  him.  Fontainebleau  contains  many  pieces  of  furniture  designed  expressly  for 
Marie  Antoinette,  and  this  cabinet  is  of  the  number. 

Pierre  Rousseau  planned  the  apartments  of  the  queen  at  Fontainebleau  and 
designed  the  decorations.  The  boudoir  is  particularly  fine  and  has  been  little 
altered  since  it  was  first  executed.  Everything  pertaining  to  Marie  Antoinette  is  of 
interest.  From  the  historical  point  of  view  there  are  no  apartments  in  Fontaine- 
bleau, Compiegne,  Versailles,  or  the  Petit  Trianon  so  worthy  of  study  as  those  occu- 
pied by  the  ill-fated  queen.  From  the  standpoint  of  interior  decoration  all  the 
rooms  furnished  in  the  Louis  XVI  style  have  value.  Of  the  three  schools  named  in 
honor  of  the  sovereigns  Louis  XIV,  Louis  XV,  and  Louis  XVI,  none  is  so  worthy  of 
reproduction  as  the  style  'Louis  Seize".  It  combines  grace  with  simplicity,  and,  when 
correctly  interpreted,  is  as  suitable  in  an  American  home  of  the  twentieth  century 
as  it  was  in  a  French  palace  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

In  the  case  of  the  three  great  French  styles  the  palatial  pieces  form  an  important 
contribution  to  furniture  lore,  for  with  the  exception  of  greater  richness  of  material 
and  more  elaborate  detail,  the  furniture  of  the  court  closely  resembled  that  of  the 
citizen's  house.  Thus  the  collections  of  Versailles,  Fontainebleau,  and  the  Garde- 
Meuble  have  more  than  a  royal  significance.  The  Louis  XIV  style  suggests  gran- 
deur, the  Louis  XV  elegance,  and  the  Louis  XVI  grace.  Comfort  is  not  lacking  in 
many  of  the  Louis  XIV  designs  but  comfort  is  not  their  most  prominent  feature. 
In  the  Louis  XV  pieces  there  is  more  luxury  and  less  magnificence.  The  Louis  XVI 
designs  are  constructed  on  severe  lines  but  are  perfectly  proportioned,  and  combine 
both  beauty  and  comfort.  The  furniture  of  this  period  seems  made  for  use,  not 
merely  a  medium  for  the  display  of  intricate  marquetry  and  elaborate  metal  work. 
Ornament  for  ornament's  sake  is  absent  although  perfection  of  detail  is  never 
lacking. 

Many  of  the  men  who  achieved  fame  under  Louis  XV  rendered  Louis  XVI 
distinguished  service.  Riesener,  Carlin,  Duplessis,  Leleu,  Gouthiere  left  an  im- 
press on  both  periods.  Rousseau,  Guibert,  Saunier,  Rontgen,  Benemann,  Thomire, 

124 


LOUIS  XVI  BEDSTEAD,  FONTAINEBLEAU 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


and  Oeben,  the  younger ,were  more  closely  identified  with  the  Louis  XVI  style.     Much 

of  Riesener's  later  work  was  executed  for  Marie  Antoinette  and  is  marked  by  the 

same  exquisite  finish  that  made  his  furniture  famous  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV. 

In  the  catalogue  of  the  Hamilton  collection  which  was  sold  at  auction  in  1882, 

are  listed  many  of  these  royal  designs. 
"No.  301.  Upright  Secretaire,  signed 
'Riesener  1790.'  Branded  with  the  cipher 
of  Marie  Antoinette  on  the  back,  £4,620. 
No.  302.  A  commode  en  suite  signed 
'Riesener  1790,'  £4,305.  No.  303.  An 
oblong  writing-table,  stamped  '  J.  Riesen- 
er,'  and  branded  underneath  with  the 
cipher  of  Marie  Antoinette." 

In  a  footnote  in  the  catalogue  it  is 
stated  that  "the  commode  and  the  secre- 
taire were  among  the  last  works  of  Rie- 
sener  and  that  they  were  executed  for 
the  palace  of  St.  Cloud,  where  the  queen 
resided  during  the  summer  of  1790." 

David  Rontgen,  usually  called  "Da- 
vid" in  French  furniture  annals,  was  a 
remarkable  designer.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Paris  guild  of  cabinet-makers,  but 
executed  most  of  his  furniture  in  his 
studio  at  Neuwied.  Rontgen  owed  his 
reputation  not  only  to  the  excellence  of 
his  work,  but  to  his  unique  methods  of 
conducting  his  sales.  From  his  head- 
quarters in  Neuwied  he  made  journeys 
to  the  various  courts  of  Europe.  Among 
his  royal  patrons  were  Marie  Antoinette, 
Frederick  of  Prussia,  and  Catherine  of 
Russia. 

Combined  with  beauty  of  execution  were  many  contrivances  which  rendered  his- 
work  remarkable.  Secret  drawers  and  hidden  locks  were  made  a  feature  of  his 
desks  and  cabinets,  and  earned  for  him  the  title  of  ebeniste  mecanicien.  His  mechan- 
ical ingenuity  was  often  turned  to  account  when  important  sales  were  pending. 

Lady  Dilke  describes  one  of  his  transactions  with  Catherine  of  Russia.  Rontgen 
had  arrived  in  St.  Petersburg  with  a  notable  collection  of  furniture  :"The  empress- 

126 


LOUIS    XVI    CABINET,    FONTAINEBLEAU 


LOUIS  XVI   FURNITURE 


was  ready  to  admire  and  wonder,  but  could  not  be  persuaded  to  buy,  her  funds  just 
then  being  exhausted  by  the  war  with  the  Turks.  In  the  night  preceding  the  visit 
which  she  had  promised  to  pay  to  Rontgen's  exhibition,  arrived  the  news  of  a  naval 
victory  won  by  the  Russians  at  Tchesme,  and  when  she  was  received  on  the  follow- 
ing day  at  the  place  appointed,  matters 
were  so  arranged  that  her  eyes  should  fall 
at  once  on  an  imposing  secretaire,  which 
was  surmounted  by  a  clock  bearing  a 
Genius,  whose  graver  indicated  the  date 
of  the  successful  naval  engagement,  which 
Rontgen  had  contrived  to  add  that 
morning.  Catherine  could  do  no  less  in 
acknowledgment  of  the  courtly  compli- 
ment than  buy  the  whole  collection." 

To  such  a  point  did  Rontgen  carry  his 
mechanical  skill  and  so  closely  associated 
with  his  name  were  all  kinds  of  mechan- 
ical devices,  that  for  years  every  writing- 
desk  with  a  secret  drawer,  every  cabinet 
with  a  hidden  spring,  has  been  attributed 
to  him.  Lady  Dilke,  who  has  made  a 
careful  study  of  the  eighteenth-century 
furniture-makers,  cites  several  pieces  in 
the  Kensington  Museum  which  have 
been  incorrectly  credited  to  Rontgen. 
In  speaking  of  a  "bureau-toilette"  in  the 
Jones  collection  at  Kensington,  she  says: 
"A  curious  feature  of  this  bureau  marks 
the  treatment  of  the  cover,  which  falls 
and  presents  to  the  hand  a  myriad  little 
receptacles  for  paint  and  powder  and 
other  '  make-up '  requisites.  This  inge-  LOUIS  xvi  CLOCK 

nious  contrivance  and  the  light  color  of 

the  inlay  have  been  responsible  for  the  legend  which  declares  it  to  have  been 
ordered  of  David  Rontgen  by  his  patroness,  Queen  Marie  Antoinette,  a  story  that 
has  not  the  slightest  foundation.  At  one  time  the  name  of  David  seems  to  have 
been  applied  indiscriminately  to  all  work  inlaid  with  light  woods,  when  the  interior 
contrivances  presented  more  or  less  ingenious  character.  This  is  the  only  expla- 
nation of  the  attribution  of  Rontgen,  not  only  of  the  'bureau-toilette/  but  of  the 

127 


noble  cabinet  at  Hertford 
House,  both  undoubtedly  by 
Saunier. " 

The  "bureau-toilette"  is 
illustrated  here.  It  is  in  the 
late  Louis  XV  style  and  is  of 
tulip  wood  inlaid  with  flowers 
and  trophies.  The  mounts 
are  of  ormolu,  exquisitely 
chiseled.  Within  are  numer- 
ous pigeon-holes  for  letters 
and  many  little  receptacles 
for  paint  and  powder,  show- 
ing that  her  majesty  prac- 
ticed the  delicate  art  of 
make-up  in  common  with 
the  women  of  her  day. 

Claude-Charles  Saunier, 
Martin  Carlin,  Jean  Pafrat, 
Jean  Francois  Leleu,  are 
represented  in  many  of  the 
large  English  collections. 
From  various  catalogues  the  following  items  are  gleaned: 

Hertford  House — "  Mahogany  cabinet  with  Sevres  panels,  designed  by  Carlin, 
mounts  by  Thomire.  Table  of  amboyna  wood,  fluted  columns,  designed  by  Leleu, 
mounts  attributed  to  Gouthiere.  Table  of  wood  and  gilt  metal  porphyry  slab, 
mounts  by  Gouthiere.  Corner  cupboard  of  mahogany,  marquetry  by  Riesener, 
mounts  by  Thomire.  Cabinet  of  amboyna  wood  and  ormolu,  by  Riesener,  mounts 
by  Thomire.  Chairs  of  carved  and  gilt  wood,  coverings  of  Beauvais  tapestry. 
Corner  cupboard,  designed  by  Saunier." 

South  Kensington  Museum — "Work- table,  tulipwood  and  ormolu,  by  Carlin 
and  Pafrat.  Corner  cupboard,  marquetry,  by  Oeben.  Commode,  marquetry,  by 
Riesener." 

Windsor  Castle — "Sideboard  in  mahogany  and  ormolu,  with  Sevres  panels,  by 
Martin  Carlin.  Mahogany  cabinet  with  bronze  mounts,  bearing  the  arms  of  France 
and  Savoy.  Secretaire  of  tulipwood  with  bronze  mounts,  by  Rontgen." 

These  items,  brief  as  they  are,  indicate  the  trend  of  the  Louis  XVI  style,  so  far 
as  the  choice  of  woods  and  metals  are  concerned.  They  also  show  the  importance 
given  to  the  maker's  name.  French  designers  of  the  eighteenth  century  signed  their 

128 


WRITING-DESK    AND    BUREAU-TOILETTE     BELONGING    TO 
MARIE     ANTOINETTE,    LATE   XV  STYLE 


LOUIS  XVI   FURNITURE 


work  precisely  as  the  painters  signed  their  canvases,  and  who  shall  say  that  they 
were  lesser  artists? 

Mahogany  had  been  growing  in  popularity  since  the  middle  of  the  century,  and 
walnut  which  had  so  long  been  the  chief  medium  of  French  furniture-makers,  had 
gradually  lost  favor.  Walnut  was  not  discarded,  but  it  was  more  often  gilded  and 
enameled  than  used  in  its  natural  state.  For  chairs  and  couches,  and  for  all  pieces 
where  upholstery  was  utilized,  walnut  was  the  usual  foundation.  The  enameling 
to  which  the  wood  was  treated  was  in  soft  colors  and  exceedingly  durable.  Many 
of  the  Louis  XVI  chairs,  sofas,  and  bedsteads  show  this  delicate  finish  which  to- 
day exhibits  little  trace  of  wear.  The  gilded  furniture  belongs  to  another  class, 
although  the  designs  are  often  similar.  Many  of  the  glided  chairs  are  combined  with 
cane.  Sometimes  the  natural  cane  is  set  in  a  gilded  frame,  and  again  the  cane  is 
gilded  and  the  wood  enameled.  Another  style  combines  cane  with  natural  walnut 
which  is  most  attractive  of  all.  Modern  furniture-makers  have  lately  revived  this 
fashion.  With  a  consistent  setting  these  cane  pieces  are  exceedingly  effective. 

Marie  Antoinette,  in  furnishing  the  Petit  Trianon  made  a  most  effective  use  of 
cane.  It  suited  the  simplicity  which  she  delighted  to  affect  when  she  retired  to  the 
Trianon.  The  queen,  brought  up  in  the  Austrian  court  which  was  less  formal  than 
that  of  France,  spent  her  happiest  hours  in  the  picturesque  building  which  Louis  XV 
erected  for  the  duchess  du  Barry.  Here 
she  could  escape  the  etiquette  of  the 
court  and  live  as  independently  as  she 
pleased,  even  playing  dairy-maid  when 
the  whim  seized  her.  The  English  gar- 
den, the  poultry-house,  the  mill,  the 
grotto,  and  the  djfiry  are  still  in  exist- 
ence, and  are  scarcely  less  interesting 
than  the  Little  Trianon  itself. 

Gabriel,  the  royal  architect,  built  the 
main  edifice  which  bears  somewhat  the 
same  relation  architecturally  to  the 
Grand  Trianon  that  the  Grand  Trianon 
does  to  Versailles.  "The  Petit  Trianon 
is  rather  a  handsome  country  house  than 
a  palace,"  says  a  writer  of  the  period. 
Its  walls  are  ornamented  with  sculptural 
festoons  of  oak  leaves,  and  the  balustrade 
is  of  gilt  bronze  in  designs  of  lyres  and 
quivers,  horns  of  plenty  and  the  inter- 


LOUIS   XVI    CHAIR,    PETIT  TRIANON 


129 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


laced  letters  M.  A.  The  antechamber  has  a  Greek  portal,  and  within  is  paneled 
in  a  severe  but  elegant  style  with  a  cornice  of  palmettes  and  painted  rectangular 
panels  over  the  doors.  The  dining-room  opens  immediately  from  it.  The  orna- 
ments on  the  panels,  trophies  of  quivers  and  crowns,  were  placed  there  by  the  order 
of  the  queen.  The  main  salon  is  furnished  in  crimson  and  gold.  The  boudoir  is 
charming,  with  its  simple  but  beautifully  wrought  moldings,  its  panels  relieved  by 
delicately  modeled  arabesques,  and  its  simple  mantel  garniture  of  two  Sevres 
vases  and  branches  for  candles  in  gilt  bronze." 

The  rooms  described  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  Louis  XVI  period.  They 
did  not  surpass  the  furnishings  of  many  private  houses.  Paneled  woodwork  orna- 
mented with  arabesques  and  trophies  formed  the  usual  decoration  of  side  walls. 
The  furniture  of  the  main  salon  consisted  of  six  straight-back  chairs,  two  arm- 
chairs, a  bergere,  or  chair  with  upholstered  sides,  two  sofas,  and  several  tables. 

In  studying  Louis  XVI  chairs  two  general  types  are  observed:  one  is  composed 
entirely  of  angles;  the  other  makes  a  partial  use  of  the  oval.  The  arm-chair  on 
page  129  is  a  fine  illustration  of  the  first  class.  The  chair  reproduced  on  this  page 
belongs  to  the  second.  The  fluted  support  is  shown  in  both  types  and  this  feature, 
it  may  be  added,  is  the  most  marked  characteristic  of  Louis  XVI  furniture. 


LOUIS  XVI  CHAIR,  PETIT  TRIANON. 

130 


CHAPTER  XII 

ENGLISH  FURNITURE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  FIRST,  QUEEN  ANNE  WHICH  WAS 
A  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  DUTCH  TYPES  OF  THE  LATE  SEVEN- 
TEENTH CENTURY.  SECOND,  CHIPPENDALE  THE  LEADING  FEA- 
TURES BEING  THE  BALL-AND-CLAW  FOOT,  THE  PIERCED  SPLAT, 
AND  THE  CABRIOLE  LEG.  THIRD,  ADAM,  INAUGURATING  A  RE- 
VIVAL OF  CLASSIC  ORNAMENT.  FOURTH,  HEPPLEWHITE,  IMPOR- 
TANT DETAILS  OF  WHICH  WERE  THE  STRAIGHT  TAPERING  LEG,  THE 
SHIELD-SHAPED  CHAIR  BACK,  AND  THE  SPADE-FOOT.  FIFTH, 
SHERATON,  SALIENT  CHARACTERISTICS  BEING  THE  FLUTED  LEG, 
THE  RECTANGULAR  CHAIR  BACK,  AND  CLASSIC  CARVING  AND 
INLAY. 


CHAPTER  XII 

ENGLISH    FURNITURE    OF    THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 

THE   WORK   OF  THOMAS   CHIPPENDALE 

AMONG  English  furniture-makers  the  name  of  Thomas  Chippendale  stands 
first.    Other  designers  have  surpassed  him  in  certain  lines,  but  to  none  has 
the  same  amount  of  fame  been  accorded.     Chippendale  was  the  first  Eng- 
lishman to  give   title  to   a  style.      Celebrated   designers   had  preceded   him,  but 
their  identity  is  submerged  in  that  of  their  sovereign.     We  hear  little  of  a  George 
I,  a  George  II,  or  a  George  III  period.     Queen  Anne's  name  is  associated  with  the 
furniture  types  of  the  early  eighteenth  century.     Victorian  is  the  term  given  to 
the  furniture  development  of  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.     Between 
these  two  reigns  styles  in  furniture  are  known  by  the  names  of  the  men  who 
created  them. 

Chippendale  was  more  a  translator  than  a  creator.  He  adapted  Dutch, 
French,  and  Chinese  designs  infusing  his  own  personality  into  everything  he 
touched.  His  early  work  was  largely  tinctured  by  that  of  Grinling  Gibbons,  a 
contemporary  and  co^wofker  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Gibbons's  influence  on 
interior  work  was  almost  as  potent  as  was  that  of  Wren  on  the  architecture  of  the 
day.  Chippendale  owed  much  to  this  man  whose  fame  has  been  overshadowed 
by  some  of  his  followers. 

All  furniture-makers  of  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  indebted  to 
the  Dutch.  Chippendale  used  the  cabriole  or  bandy-leg  freely,  also  the  ball-and- 
claw  foot,  and  the  fiddle-back.  Other  designers  did  the  same,  but  Chippendale 
combined  them  with  greater  success.  It  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at  that  these 
characteristics  are  termed  "Chippendale,"  for  it  was  he  who  gave  them  lasting  fame. 
How  the  world  would  rate  Chippendale  and  his  contemporaries  if  oak  and  walnut 
had  been  their  only  medium  is  impossible  to  say.  What  English  furniture  of  the 
eighteenth  century  would  have  been  if  mahogany  had  been  unknown  is  difficult  to 
conjecture.  The  firmness  of  the  wood,  coupled  with  the  fine  quality  of  the  grain, 
enabled  furniture-makers  to  secure  results  which  were  unattainable  in  oak.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  the  great  English  cabinet-makers  of  the  eighteenth  century 
could  not  have  achieved  their  triumphs  without  the  aid  of  this  beautiful  medium. 
By  its  use  designers  obtained  both  strength  and  delicacy,  characteristics  which 
were  united  for  the  first  time.  The  introduction  of  this  wood  has  long  been  credited 
to  one  Dr.  Gibbon,  an  English  physician  and  the  date  is  placed  at  1724.  The 

133 


tradition  is  that  the  doctor  re- 
ceived from  his  brother,  a  sea- 
captain  in  the  West  Indies,  a  few 
pieces  of  mahogany,  and  being 
pleased  with  the  color,  ordered  a 
cabinet-maker  to  utilize  the  bits 
in  constructing  a  candle-box  for 
Mrs.  Gibbon.  Delighted  with  the 
result  he  sent  instructions  to  the 
sea-captain  to  ship  him  enough 
mahogany  to  make  a  bureau.  By 
chance  the  duchess  of  Buckingham 
saw  the  bureau  and  was  imme- 
diately charmed  with  it.  Her 
approval  brought  the  wood  into 
general  notice,  and  mahogany 
furniture  soon  became  the  fashion. 
Mahogany  was  known  in 
France  and  Spain  at  an  earlier 
date  than  this,  and  it  is  quite 
probable  that  English  cabinet- 
makers were  familiar  with  it 


ENGLISH   FURNITURE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


CHIPPENDALE  S  DUTCH  TYPE,  I 

A  Collection  of  Most  Elegant  and 
Useful  Designs  of  Household  Fur- 
niture. Calculated  to  Improve  and 
Refine  the  Present  Taste,  and 
Suited  to  Persons  in  All  Degrees 
of  Life.  Many  of  the  designs  in 
the  book  were  extremely  rococo 
and  showed  how  close  a  student 
the  author  was  of  the  Louis  XV 
school;  some  were  executed  in 
"the  Gothic  manner,"  others  in 
the  "  Chinese  taste."  A  list  of  the 
"  Most  Elegant  and  Useful  Designs 
of  Household  Furniture,  in  the 
Most  Fashionable  Taste,"  included: 


before     Dr.   Gibbon  and  his   candle-box 
became  famous. 

Chippendale  worked  in  many  veins, 
adapting  his  craft  to  the  taste  and  purse 
of  his  patrons.  His  book,  The  Gentle- 
man and  Cabinet-Maker's  Director,  shows 
a  variety  of  designs  executed  in  the  French, 
Chinese,  and  Gothic  styles.  The  third 
edition  appeared  in  1762,  and  by  that 
time  Chippendale's  fame  was  firmly  estab- 
lished. The  sub-title  stated  that  it  was 


CHIPPENDALE  CHAIR,  II 


135 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


Chairs,  sofas,  beds,  and  couches;  china-tables,  dressing-tables,  shaving-tables,  bason-stands, 
and  teakettle-stands ;  frames  for  marble-slabs,  bureau-dressing-tables,  and  commodes;  writing- 
tables,  and  library-tables ;  library  bookcases,  organ-cases  for  private  rooms,  or  churches,  desks 
and  book-cases ;  dressing  and  writing-tables  with  book-cases,  cabinets,  and  cloaths-presses ; 
china-cases,  china-shelves,  and  book-shelves;  candle-stands,  terms  for  busts,  stands  for  china 
jars  and  pedestals;  cisterns  for  water,  lanthorns,  and  chandeliers;  fire-screens,  brackets,  and 
clock  cases;  pier-glasses  and  table-frames;  girandoles,  chimney-pieces,  and  picture-frames; 
stove-grates,  boarders,  frets,  Chinese-railing,  and  brass-work,  for  furniture, 
from  which  it  may  be  seen  that  the  designer  of  St.  Martin's  Lane  could  design, 
stove-grates  and  lanterns  as  well  as  organ-cases. 

Sideboards  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Director  and  it  is  doubtful  if  Chippen- 
dale made  these  pieces.     Many  articles  long  attributed  to  Chippendale  are  now 

credited  to  Hepplewhite  and 
Shearer.  It  is  conceded  by 
students  of  furniture  that 
Chippendale  did  not  inlay  any 
of  his  handiwork.  The  many 
beautiful  cabinets  and  side- 
boards, standing  on  straight, 
tapering  legs,  and  having  for 
their  sole  decoration  narrow 
lines  of  inlay  which  have  long 
been  called  "Chippendale," 
are,  in  reality,  after  the  man- 
ner of  Hepplewhite.  The  ser- 
pentine sideboards  are  be- 
lieved to  have  been  designed 
by  Thomas  Shearer  who  was 
associated  with  Hepplewhite. 
Carving  was  Chippendale's 
mode  of  decoration  and  in  his 
beautiful  chairs  it  found  its 
best  expression.  Five  distinct 
types  are  illustrated  here  and 
show  the  versatility  of  this 
renowned  chair-maker.  The 
first  is  the  sturdy  Dutch  type 
to  which  Chippendale  gave 
such  vitality.  The  cabriole 
leg,  the  club  foot,  the  heavy 


CHIPPENDALE   ARM-CHAIR, III 


136 


ENGLISH   FURNITURE  OF  THE   EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


underbracing,  are  of  Dutch  origin.  The 
pierced  splat  is  Chippendale  translation 
of  the  fiddle-back.  In  the  second  illus- 
tration the  braces  have  been  altered, 
and  the  curved  Dutch  leg  gives  place 
to  the  square,  straight  leg.  The  arm- 
chair is  its  companion  and  shows  the 
designer  at  high-water  mark.  Here  is 
grace  coupled  with  comfort,  and  a 
restraint  which  is  often  lacking  in  his 
later  chairs.  That  Chippendale  himself 
thought  lightly  of  this  design  and  pre- 
ferred his  French,  Chinese,  and  Gothic 
chairs,  is  well  known.  Of  his  fantastic 
"ribbon-backs,"  he  once  said,  "If  I 
may  speak  without  vanity,  they  are 
the  best  that  I  have  seen,  and  perhaps 
the  best  that  have  been  made."  And 
again,  "There  may  be  better  chairs, 
but  I  doubt  it." 

In  America  these  elaborate  pieces 
are  seldom  seen,  and  perhaps  it  is  for 
this  reason  that  "Chippendale"  to  us 
always  stands  for  the  beautiful.  Many 
of  the  rococo  designs  were  made  for 
wealthy  patrons  and  were  never  du- 
plicated. Others  were  made  for  roy- 
alty and  the  drawings  immediately 
destroyed.  The  best  work  of  the  man  was  undoubtedly  done  when  there  was  a  restric- 
tion in  regard  to  the  cost.  Then,  as  now,  too  much  money  was  a  detriment.  When 
a  fabulous  sum  was  asked  for  a  single  piece  of  furniture  the  money  had  to  show 
somewhere,  and  that  was  on  the  surface.  If  Thomas  Chippendale  could  have  fore- 
seen that  these  designs  would  one  day  be  held  up  to  ridicule,  while  on  the  other 
hand  some  of  his  simple  patterns  would  sell  for  fabulous  sums,  he  would  have 
doubted  the  sanity  of  posterity. 

Among  his  "simple"  pieces  may  be  reckoned  the  ladder-back  chair  which  is  repro- 
duced in  the  fourth  illustration.  This  embodies  the  fine  proportions  which  have  justly 
given  him  the  title  of  prince  of  chair-makers.  The  "roundabout"  illustrates  another 
phase  of  his  work,  while  his  French  manner  is  depicted  in  illustration  VI. 

137 


LADDER-BACK  CHAIR,  IV 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


Card-tables,  sofas,  settees,  desks, 
bureaus,  and  bookcases  came  from 
Chippendale's  shop  in  quantities.  His 
sofas  and  settees  follow  the  same  lines 
as  his  chairs;  his  card- tables  usually 
have  the  ball-and-claw  foot,  with 
intricate  carving;  the  bureaus  and 
commodes  are  less  typical  and  com- 
bine features  which  partake  of  many 
styles.  In  the  English  definition  of 
the  word  "bureau,"  a  chest  of  drawers 
was  not  implied.  The  term  was  used 
to  describe  secretaries  and  commodes. 
Few  of  Chippendale's  "bureaus"  are 
found  in  America.  In  the  Warner 
House  in  Portsmouth  is  a  beautiful 
bookcase  which  is  attributed  to  Chip- 
pendale, and  a  comparison  with  au- 
thenticated pieces  in  England  lends 
probability  to  the  theory.  The  case 
fills  one  side  of  the  room  and  contains 
a  drop  lid  which  may  be  used  for  writing  purposes. 

While  to  Chippendale  belongs  the  glory  of  raising  his  work  above  his  contem- 
poraries of  the  middle  portion  of  the  century,  the  work  of  other  men  must  not  be 
forgotten.  Grinling  Gibbons  has  been  mentioned;  James  Gibbs,  Isaac  Ware,  and 
William  Kent  followed  him.  Coming  a  little  later  were  Abraham  Swan,  Batty 
and  Thomas  Langley,  Edwards  and  Darley,  Thomas  Johnson,  Ince,  and  Robert 
Manwaring.  These  men  were  notable  in  special  lines.  Batty  and  Thomas  Langley 
were  famous  for  their  pier- tables  and  consoles;  Edwards  and  Darley  were  expo- 
nents of  the  Chinese  taste;  Thomas  Johnson  was  the  high  priest  of  the  extreme 
rococo;  Manwaring  and  Richardson  were  contemporaneous  with  the  Adam  broth- 
ers, and  were  identified  with  the  work  of  their  day. 

One  name  should  be  given  special  prominence  and  that  is  Richard  Gillow  wjiose 
work  was  of  unusual  merit,  and  to  whom  may  possibly  belong  the  honor  of  origi- 
nating the  shield-shape  chair.  Richard  Gillow  was  son  of  Robert  Gillow  who 
achieved  fame  earlier  in  the  century.  If  Gillow  had  written  a  book  he  might  have 
been  a  rival  of  both  Chippendale  and  Hepplewhite.  His  work  on  paper  was  con- 
fined to  his  working  drawings  which  show  ability  of  a  high  order.  Many  of  his 
finest  pieces  were  executed  for  the  Adam  brothers  whose  commissions  were  greatly 

138 


CHIPPENDALE  ROUNDABOUT,  V 


ENGLISH  FURNITURE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


CHIPPENDALE  S 
FREXCH    MANNER,    VI 


prized  by  cabinet-makers.  The  work  of  this  de- 
signer was  signed,  a  custom  which,  we  regret,  was 
not  universal  among  English  cabinet-makers. 

The  shield  or  heart-shaped  chair  is  associated 
with  Hepplewhite,  yet  Chippendale,  Gillow,  Shearer, 
Sheraton,  all  used  it.  It  was  Hepplewhite  who  gave 
it  special  prominence  and  it  is  Hepplewhite's  name 
which  is  now  associated  with  it.  Doubtless  these 
designers  borrowed  largely  from  each  other,  adapting 
various  characteristics  to  suit  the  commission  in  hand. 

The  fame  of  these  great  furniture-makers  rests  on 
their  representative  work,  not  on  their  creations  en 
masse.  Nor  is  it  so  much  a  question  of  the  invention 
of  a  style,  as  whose  individuality  was  strong  enough 
to  perpetuate  it.  On  this  score  we  ascribe  to 
Chippendale  the  pierced  back  and  the  ball-and-claw 
foot;  to  Hepplewhite  the  shield-back  and  the 
straight,  tapering  foot;  and  to  Sheraton  the  rectan- 
gular back  and  the  fluted  leg.  That  these  men  could  be  "myriad  minded"  in  their 
designing  we  know  from  their  books,  but  we  judge  them  by  their  typical  furniture 
and  rate  them  accordingly. 

THE    WORK    OF    GEORGE    HEPPLEWHITE 

Less  is  known  of  Hepplewhite  than  of  either  of  his  great  contemporaries.  His 
death  occurred  in  1786;  the  date  of  his  birth  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  For  many 
years  a  mystery  has  surrounded  the  names  "G.  Hepplewhite"  and  "A.  Hepple- 
white" which  has  of  late  been  solved.  Research  has  revealed  the  fact  that  the 
business  of  George  Hepplewhite,  after  his  death,  passed  into  the  hands  of  his  widow 
Alice,  who  continued  the  work  of  the  firm  over  the  signature  of  "A.  Hepplewhite 
and  Company."  Thus  the  long  controversy  as  to  the  relationship  of  the  two  is 
satisfactorily  settled.  The  theory  that  "G."  and  " A. " Hepplewhite  were  brothers 
is  set  at  rest. 

That  this  designer  personally  made,  or  even  supervised,  half  of  the  furniture 
bearing  his  name,  is  out  of  the  question.  Craftsmen  trained  in  his  methods  per- 
petuated the  work.  Hepplewhite's  book,  The  Cabinet-maker  and  Upholsters  Guide, 
appeared  the  year  following  his  demise  and  was  completed  by  other  hands.  It  is 
believed  that  Thomas  Shearer,  who  was  associated  with  him,  made  many  of  the  draw- 
ings contained  in  the  work.  Shearer's  identity  seems  to  have  been  lost  in  that  of 
Hepplewhite.  An  English  critic,  in  writing  of  him,  says :  "  Whether  Shearer  in- 

139 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


fluenced  Hepplewhite  or  Hepplewhite  Shearer  is  a  question  to  which  we  are  not 
likely  to  find  a  definite  answer;  yet  as  a  considerable  portion  of  Sheraton's  style 
was  founded  on  Shearer's  lines,  the  presumption  is  that  if  a  man  of  such  very 
decided  personality  was  affected,  Hepplewhite  was  no  less  indebted  to  this  great  but 
practically  forgotten  designer."  And  again: 

"In  bookcases  Shearer  is  very  strong.  His  eye  for  proportion  is  indisputable, 
and  it  is  only  his  occasionally  uncertain  use  of  inlay  and  ornament  which  would 
prevent  us  placing  him  first  in  this  particular  department.  Even  as  these  stand 
they  are  better  than  Hepplewhite's,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  their  influence 
on  Sheraton." 

Shearer  is  believed  to  have  originated  the  serpentine  sideboard  and  Hepplewhite 

to  have  brought  it  to  perfection.  A 
fine  specimen  illustrated  on  page  143 
has  all  the  characteristics  of  this 
designer.  The  serpentine  curve,  the 
straight,  tapering  legs,  the  spade-feet, 
and  the  peculiar  inlay,  all  show  this 
master  hand.  Hepplewhite  used 
inlay  most  effectively.  The  legs  of 
his  tables  and  sideboards  are  some- 
times ornamented  with  delicate  ver- 
tical patterns  in  sycamore  and  tulip- 
wood.  The  meander  pattern  was  a 
favorite  with  him  and  so  was  the 
Greek  fret.  In  this  work  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Adam  brothers  is 
plainly  discernible.  The  urn-shaped 
finials  used  by  Shearer  and  Sheraton, 
and  in  a  slighter  degree  by  Hepple- 
white, are  in  the  "Adam  style." 
Knife-boxes  in  this  form  were  made 
by  all  three  of  the  designers,  and 
are  among  the  most  attractive  of 
small  pieces  of  furniture.  Dressing- 
tables  with  heart-shaped  mirrors, 
cabinets  with  long,  tapering  legs,  and 
tables  of  many  forms,  are  among 
Hepplewhite's  designs.  His  shield- 
shaped  chairs  have  doubtless  brought 


SHIELD-SHAPED  CHAIR,   HEPPLEWHITE 


140 


ENGLISH   FURNITURE   OF    THE    EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 


HEPPLEWHITE    TABLE 


him  greatest  renown.  An  unusually 
fine  example  of  this  style  is  repro- 
duced here.  It  is  more  elaborate 
than  much  of  his  work,  yet  full  of  re- 
finement and  dignity.  Robert  Adam 
never  handled  the  urn  with  greater 
skill.  The  details  are  remarkably 
fine,  and  place  Hepple white  above 
the  reproach  that  his  chairs  were 
usually  faulty  in  construction. 

A  rare  design  is  the  oval-back 
chair  containing  the  Prince  of  Wales 
plumes,  shown  on  page  144.  The 
spade-foot,  which  is  one  of  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  this  designer's 
work,  is  illustrated  in  both  chairs. 
Pieces  of  furniture  in  the  Hepple- 
white  style  are  numerous  in  this 
country,  and  are  among  the  most 
interesting  of  colonial  possessions. 
R.  S.  Clouston,  writing  of  English  cabinet-makers,  says: 

"Personally,  I  am  unable  to  rank  Hepplewhite  with  Chippendale  on  the  one  side 
or  Sheraton  on  the  other,  either  in  construction  or  design,  yet  there  is  an  undefinable 
charm  about  his  \sork,  even  when  faulty  by  rule,  which,  like  some  old  song,  touches 
a.  higher  and  more  human  note  than  can  be  attained  by  mere  correctness." 

THE   WORK   OF  JAMES  AND   ROBERT  ADAM 

To  many  people  the  name  Adam  is  vaguely  associated  with  a  severe  type  of 
interior  woodwork,  variously  called  colonial,  Georgian,  and  Louis  XVI.  To  others 
the  term  signifies  a  few  ornamental  details  found  in  old  furniture,  such  as  the  fluted 
column,  the  festoon,  the  garland,  and  the  band  of  ribbon.  The  real  work  of  Robert 
Adam  and  that  of  his  brother  James  is  seldom  considered.  To  them  was  largely 
•due  the  reaction  that  took  place  in  English  handicraft  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  Adams  were  architects  but  their  influence  did  not  end 
with  the  architecture  of  the  period.  It  extended  over  all  the  arts  and  found  an 
echo  in  this  country.  The  real  worth  of  these  gifted  men  cannot  be  measured 
by  the  buildings  they  erected,  although  these  have  stood  the  test  of  time,  nor  can 
it  be  reckoned  by  the  interiors  they  designed,  successful  as  their  work  in  this  field 
will  always  be  considered.  It  must  be  estimated  by  the  impetus  they  gave  the  arts 
as  a  whole — an  impetus  towards  simplicity. 

141 


DINING-ROOM,    RESIDENCE    OF  FREDERIC   C.   BARTLETT,    CHICAGO,   HEPPLEWHITE    FURNITURE 


ENGLISH  FURNITURE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

The  brothers  did  not  create  the  style  which  bears  their  name.  They  adapted  to 
English  conditions  a  style  old  as  ornament  itself,  and  which  in  France  had  already 
gained  a  footing,  later  to  blossom  as  the  Louis  XVI  school.  Robert  Adam,  on 
his  return  from  Italy,  whither  he  had  gone  with  the  French  architect  Clerisseau, 
found  England  ripe  for  a  second  reformation.  The  work  of  the  great  French  design- 
ers of  Louis  XV's  reign  was  being  copied  in  England,  but  without  the  delicacy  of 


HEPPLEWHITE    SIDEBOARD 

touch  which  made  the  eccentricities  of  such  men  as  Meissonier  almost  excusable. 
One  glance  at  the  early  drawings  of  Chippendale,  Johnson,  and  Ince  show  with 
what  a  heavy  hand  the  English  designer  wielded  rococo  ornament.  When  Sir  Wil- 
liam Chambers  introduced  the  Chinese  style  of  decoration,  and  a  few  so-called 
"oriental"  details  were  grafted  upon  the  rococo  hodgepodge,  the  time  was  at  hand 
for  an  artistic  upheaval.  At  this  point  Robert  Adam,  fresh  from  the  study  of 
antique  ornament  in  Italy  and  Spalatio,  arrived  in  England.  The  year  was  1754 — a 
memorable  one  in  English  annals.  From  this  moment  the  reformation  began, 
insignificant  at  first,  but  gathering  force  as  its  influence  widened. 

In  1764  Adam  published  a  folio  of  drawings,  engraved  by  Bartolozzi,  showing  the 
ruins  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian's  palace  at  Spalatio.     In  an  introduction  to  the 

143 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN   FURNITURE 


work  he  stated  that  his  "object  in  selecting  this  ruin  for  special  examination  was  its 
residential  character,  as  the  knowledge  of  classical  architecture  in  England  is  con- 
fined to  public  buildings."  In  1778  the  brothers,  James  and  Robert,  began  the 
publication  of  their  Works  in  Architecture,  a  series  of  folios  containing  their  most 
important  designs.  These  books  were  of  great  value  and  were  used  by  architects 
and  decorators  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

Few  of  the  interiors  designed  by  the  brothers  are  now  in  existence.  Number  25 
Portland  Square,  the  house  built  by  Robert  for  himself,  has  been  little  altered,  and 
one  or  two  other  dwellings  have  shared  a  like  kindly  fate.  But  the  beautiful  rooms 
of  Sion  House,  of  Kenwood,  and  of  the  Earl  of  Derby's  mansion  in  Grosvenor  Square, 
exist  only  in  the  fine  old  engravings  which  are  a  lasting  legacy  of  the  Adam  brothers. 

The  drawings  of  the  library  in  Sion 
House,  the  seat  of  the  earl  of  North- 
umberland, of  the  "great  room"  at 
Kenwood,  the  residence  of  Lord  Mans- 
field, and  of  the  "withdra wing-rooms" 
in  the  earl  of  Derby's  house,  show  what 
masters  of  detail  these  princely  de- 
signers were. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Adam 
style  were,  to  quote  from  an  old 
writer,  "simplicity,  elegant  slender- 
ness,  and  low  relief."  "In  their  fine 
sense  of  proportion,"  says  another 
critic,  "in  their  chaste  taste  in  the 
selection  and  disposition  of  niches, 
lunettes,  festoons,  and  other  classical 
ornament,  the  brothers  Adam  have 
never  been  excelled." 

They  made  use  of  the  urn,  the 
laurel  leaf,  the  arabesque,  the  oval 
patera,  the  acanthus,  the  ribbon 
band,  and  the  garland.  Many  of  these 
details  appear  in  the  Louis  XVI 
decorations.  The  difference  between 
the  Louis  XVI  style  and  the  Adam 
style  lies  in  the  application  of  the 
ornament  rather  than  in  the  ornament 
itself. 


PRINCE  OF  WALES   CHAIR,    HEPPLEWHITE 


144 


ENGLISH   FURNITURE   OF  THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 


The  brothers  carried  their 
classic  tastes  to  a  very  fine 
point,  bestowing  on  the  furni- 
ture and  metal  appointments 
of  the  rooms  they  designed  as 
much  thought  as  they  gave 
to  the  ceilings,  doors,  and 
mantels.  Some  of  their  most 
charming  work  is  seen  in  their 
locks  and  escutcheons  for  fur- 
niture, vases  for  candles, 
stands  and  brackets  for  lamps, 
and  frames  for  mirrors.  In- 
teresting examples  of  their 
designing  in  this  line  may  be 
noted  in  the  illustrations  of 
the  vase  and  bracket  for  can- 
dles made  for  the  countess  of 
Derby,  and  in  the  lock  for  a  HEPPLEWHITE  TABLE 

cabinet   door   made    for  the  duke  of  Northumberland. 

The  Adams  regarded  the  Grosvenor  Square  house  as  their  masterpiece,  and  one 
of  their  folios  is  largely  devoted  to  the  rooms  and  furniture  of  this  mansion.  The 
great  drawing-room,  where  the  countess  of  Derby  entertained  so  lavishly,  was  pro- 
nounced by  Robert  to  be  one  of  the  "most  elegant  in  Europe."  The  chimney-piece 
of  this  apartment  shows  what  delicacy  and  force  these  artists  could  impart  to  large 
surfaces.  All  the  decorations  and  appointments  of  the  smaller  rooms  were  planned 
with  the  same  regard  for  detail.  The  private  suite  of  the  countess  was  conceded  to 
be  the  finest  of  its  kind  in  London.  The  furniture  was  designed  by  James  and 
executed  under  his  direction. 

The  influence  of  the  Adam  brothers  on  the  furniture-makers  of  their  time  was 
very  marked.  The  later  work  of  Hepplewhite,  and  more  especially  that  of  Sheraton, 
was  largely  shaped  by  them.  The  latter  acknowledged  his  indebtedness  in  a 
graceful  tribute  dedicated  to  Robert.  Sheraton  did  not  imitate — he  was  too 
great  for  that — but  he  embodied  in  his  furniture  a  feeling  for  simplicity  which 
he  himself  was  generous  enough  to  attribute  to  the  brothers.  In  this  country 
the  Adam  type  of  furniture  is  best  known  by  the  work  of  Sheraton.  The  fine 
sideboards  with  urn-shaped  knife-boxes  made  by  him  are  splendid  examples  of  the 
Adam  style. 

When  Robert  Adam  returned  from  Italy,  Pergolesi  and  Bartolozzi  accompanied 

145 


ADAM    COMMODE   DESIGNED   FOR    COUNTESS    OF   DERBY 
PAINTED  BY  PERGOLESI 


him.  Pergolesi  executed  many  of  the  decorations  designed  by  the  brothers,  and  in 
this  work  he  was  assisted  by  Cipriani,  another  Italian,  and  by  that  gifted  woman, 
Angelica  Kauffman.  Furniture  was  designed  in  harmony  with  the  walls  and  painted 
in  gold  and  enamels. 

Strong  as  the  influence  of  the  Adam  brothers  was  in  England  it  was  scarcely  less 
in  this  country.  America  owes  these  men  an  everlasting  debt  of  gratitude,  for  to 
them  is  largely  due  our  finest  architecture.  Many  of  the  houses  erected  in  New 
England  and  the  South  from  1780  to  1810  were  built  on  lines  laid  down  by  Robert 
and  James  Adam.  The  beautiful  rooms  of  these  old  mansions  are  as  truly  Adam 
as  the  interiors  of  Kenwood,  Sion  House,  and  Portland  Place.  To  the  American 
mind  the  colonial  woodwork  is  the  finer,  being  simpler,  and  marked  by  greater 
restraint. 

Robert  Adam  shared  honors  with  James  and  to-day  their  names  are  seldom 
separated.  Robert  was  undoubtedly  the  master  of  the  two,  possessing  the  creative 
faculty  to  a  rare  degree.  Aside  from  his  work  the  story  of  his  life  reads  briefly. 
In  The  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  March,  1792,  is  a  short  but  significant  biography. 

England  lost  two  of  her  greatest  men  within  one  month,  and  both  are  honored 
in  this  quaint  pamphlet.  Under  the  heading,  "Obituary  of  Considerable  Persons," 

146 


ENGLISH   FURNITURE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 


the  death  of  Rob 
Joshua  Reynolds  is 
notes  are  rather 
these  brief  articles 
is  interesting.  With 
many  capitals  and 
sketch  is  faithfully 

"At  his  house  in 
Robert  Adam,  Esq., 
the  Royal  Antiqua- 
don  and  Edinburgh, 
buildings,     public 
in  various  parts  of 
Adam    will   remain 
of    his    taste    and 
natural    suavity  of 
to  the  excellence  of 
have     endeared     him    to     a 
will    long    lament    his    death. 
Kirkaldy,  in  the  county  of  Fife, 
to  Dr.  Adam  Smith,  author  of 
was  the  second  son  of  William 
an     architect     of 
his  education  at  the 
burgh.     The  friend- 
were  with  men  who 
nently    distinguished    themselves 
them  being  Mr.  David  Hume,  Dr. 
Adam  Fergusson,  and  Mr.  John 
of  life  he  had  the  good  fortune  to 
of  Archibald,  duke  of  Argyle,  the 
earl    of    Mansfield,   and    several 
of  the  age. 

"Mr.  Adam,  after  his  return 
tect  to  his  Majesty  in  the  year 


BRACKET  AND  VASE  FOR  CANDLES 

DESIGNED  FOR  THE  COUNTESS 

OF  DERBY 


ert  Adam  and  Sir 
recorded.   Obituary 
solemn  reading,  but 
contain  much  that 
the  exception  of  the 
the  long  s,  the  first 
reproduced. 
Albermarle    Street, 
architect,  Fellow  of 
rian  Society  of  Lon- 
The    many  elegant 
and  private,  erected 
the  kingdom  by  Mr. 
lasting  monuments 
genius.       And   the 
his  manners  joined 
his  moral  character 
numerous  circle  of  friends,  who 
Mr.  Adam  was  born  in  1728,  at 
the  same  place  that  gave  birth 
the   Wealth  of    Nations.      He 
Adam,    Esq.,    of    Marybury, 
merit.     He  received 
University  of  Edin- 
ships     he     formed 
have      since     emi- 
by  their  literary  products,  among 
Robertson,  Dr.  Adam  Smith,  Dr. 
Home.    At  a  more  advanced  time 
enjoy  the  friendship  and  society 
late  Mr.  Charles   Townsend,  the 
others  of  the  most  illustrious  men 


from  Italy,  was  appointed  archi- 
1762,  which  office,  being  incom- 
patible with  a  seat  in  Parliament,  he  resigned  in  1768,  on  his  being  elected  to 
represent  the  county  of  Kinross.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable  that  the  arts  should 
be  deprived  at  the  same  time  of  two  of  their  greatest  ornaments,  Sir  Joshua  Rey- 
nolds and  Mr.  Adam,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  of  them  excelled  more  in  his 

147 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


LOCK   FOR   A   CABINET   DOOR  -SMiGf  DESIGNED    FOR   THE    DUKE    OF 

NORTHUMBERLAND 


particular  profession.  Sir  Joshua  yljaMjiKJK'  introduced  a  new  and  superior 
style  of  portrait-painting.  It  is  ^H'HKy  equally  true  that  Mr.  Adam  pro- 
duced a  total  change  in  the  archi-  ^^^^  tecture  of  this  country,  and  his 
fertile  genius  in  elegant  ornament  was  not  confined  to  the  decoration  of  buildings,  but 
has  been  diffused  into  almost  every  branch  of  manufacture.  His  talents  extended  be- 
yond the  line  of  his  profession.  The  loss  of  Mr.  Adam  at  this  time  must  be  peculiarly 
felt,  as  the  new  University  of  Edinburgh  and  other  great  public  works,  both  in  that  city 
and  in  Glasgow,  were  erecting  from  his  designs  and  under  his  direction.  To  the  last 
period  of  his  life  Mr.  Adam  displayed  an  unusual  vigor  of  genius  and  refinement  of 
taste ;  for  in  the  space  of  one  year  preceding  his  death  he  designed  eight  great  public 
works  and  twenty-five  private  buildings,  so  various  in  their  style  and  so  beautiful  in 
their  composition  that  they  have  been  allowed  by  the  best  judges  sufficient  of  them- 
selves to  establish  his  fame  unrivaled  as  an  artist." 

It  is  impossible  to  show  the  charm  of  the  Adam  style  with  a  few  illustrations. 
No  adequate  conception  of  the  talents  of  the  brothers  can  be  gained  from  isolated 
examples  of  their  work.  The  mantels  and  doors  designed  by  them  lose  half  their 
beauty  when  removed  from  the  original  setting.  Thus  the  reproduction  of  the  door 
to  the  Etruscan  room  in  the  Grosvenor  Square  house,  and  that  of  the  chimney-piece 
in  the  same  mansion,  give  little  hint  of  the  Adam  genius.  Viewed  with  their  sur- 
roundings they  become  successful  details  of  a  very  harmonious  whole.  The  Adam 
decorations,  more  than  that  of  any  other  style,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
Louis  XV,  lose  by  being  separated  from  the  construction.  The  watchword  of  the 
brothers  was  "harmony,"  and  this  quality  in  their  work  can  be  appreciated  only 
when  a  room  or  series  of  rooms  is  studied.  There  are  reprints  of  the  interiors  of 


ENGLISH     FURNITURE     OF    THE    EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 


Sion  House,  Kenwood,  Queen's  House,  and  the  mansions  in  Portland  Place  and 
Grosvenor  Square,  and  these  are  as  useful  from  the  student's  standpoint  as  the  now 
priceless  first  editions.  These  books  are  worth  volumes  of  descriptions. 

Many  learned  writers  have  discoursed  extensively  on  the  work  of  James  and 
Robert  Adam,  but  few  have  so  intelligently  expressed  the  point  of  the  matter  as 
did  Robert  himself  in  the  preface  of  his  first  book : 

"If  we  have  any  claim  to  approbation  we  found  it  on  this  alone:  that  we  have 
been  able  to  seize,  with  some  degree  of  success,  the  beautiful  spirit  of  antiquity,  and 
to  transfuse  it  with  novelty  and  variety  through  all  our  numerous  works." 

THE   WORK   OP  THOMAS   SHERATON. 

Thomas  Sheraton,  last  of  the  great  English  furniture-makers,  was  born  in  1751, 
three  years  before  Thomas  Chippendale  published  The  Gentleman  and  Cabinet-Ma- 
ker1 s  Director.  "Last  and  least"  cannot  be  said  of  Sheraton.  "Last  and 
greatest"  expresses  the  opinion  of  many  latter-day  critics.  A  recent  writer  on  the 
inexhaustible  subject  of  eighteenth-century  furniture,  says  of  him:  "Much  as  one 
may  appreciate  the  workmanship  of  Chippendale  and  Hepplewhite,  in  the  presence 
of  a  true  piece  of  Sheraton's  work  one  cannot  help  feeling  that  their  productions  are 
coarse,  almost  blatant — that  they  were  workmen,  while  Sheraton  was  a  poet,  and  a 
poet  blessed  with  color."  This  is  strong  praise,  but  it  comes  from  the  pen  of  an 
Englishman  who  has  studied  his  subject  deeply.  No  American  could  truthfully  call 
Chippendale  "blatant,"  unless  he  used  the  word  in  turning  over  the  pages  of  the 
Director.  Chippendale's  fame  rests  on  his  furniture,  not  his  drawings,  and  so  it 
is  with  Sheraton.  The  great  cabi- 
net-makers who  ^  wrote  Directors, 
Guides,  and  Drawing-Books,  put 
their  extravagant  ideas  on  paper 
and  their  simple  ones  into  furniture. 
With  their  elaborate  sketches  they 
hoped  to  catch  the  fancy  of  royalty; 
with  their  actual  pieces  of  furniture 
they  looked  for  e very-day  patronage. 
And  so  it  is  that  the  shelves  of  ref- 
erence libraries  are  full  of  "  measure- 
ments" and  "scales"  and  lengthy 
"instructions"  which  grow  gray  with 
dust,  while  the  supply  of  the  real 
furniture  is  far  too  little  to  supply 
one  half  the  demand.  To  decide  which 


ADAM   MANTELPIECE   DECORATED   BY   ANGELICA 
KAUFFMAN 


149 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


is  the  greatest,  Chippendale,  Hepplewhite,  or  Sheraton,  is  an  impossibility.     There 
is  one  glory  of  the  sun,  and  another  of  the  moon,  and  another  of  the  stars. 

Chippendale  was  the  most  versatile  of  the  three.  He  could  be  French, 
Chinese,  or  Gothic,  as  the  occasion  demanded.  His  imagination,  as  he  himself 
admitted,  was  "without  an  equal."  It  was  this  imaginative  quality  that  some- 
times led  the  St.  Martin's  Lane  furniture-maker  into  the  realms  of  the  fantastic — 
and  consequently  away  from  the  paths  of  simplicity.  Sheraton's  creations  have 
this  beautiful  quality  combined  with  perfect  proportion  and  rare  restraint.  Whether 
it  be  chair,  table,  or  sideboard,  there  is  a  completeness  about  the  design  that  leaves 
little  to  be  desired.  Ornament  for  ornament's  sake  was  never  countenanced  by 
Sheraton.  Like  the  Adam  brothers,  he  decorated  construction;  he  did  not  con- 


SHEEATON   CHAIRS 

150 


ENGLISH   FURNITURE   OF  THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY 


A   FIXE    EXAMPLE    OF   SHERATON'S   WORK 


struct  decora- 
tion. 

Coming  af- 
t  e  r  Chippen- 
dale and  Hep- 
plewhite,  this 
designer  learn- 
e  d  much 
from  their, 
methods.  Dis- 
carding the 
plain,  taper- 
ing support, 
he  selected  the 
fluted  form  of 

the  Louis  XVI  style  which  the  Adams  had  introduced  into  England.  He  made 
use  of  the  fluted  column  in  his  sideboards,  tables,  and  desks,  treating  it  with  rare 
restraint.  In  his  chairs  he  used  the  square  support,  believing  that  a  rectangular 
back  demanded  a  rectangular  base.  On  the  same  theory  his  use  of  the  round  and 
fluted  leg  is  equally  consistent,  for  it  is  always  combined  with  a  curve.  The  table, 
sofa,  and  chest  of  drawers  reproduced  in  this  chapter  show  the  combination  of  the 
fluted  support  and  the  curved  surface.  The  table  is  an  extremely  graceful  design 
and  makes  an  interesting  comparison  with  the  Hepplewhite  table  illustrated  on 
page  141.  These  designs  are  of  the  "drop  leaf"  type,  the  leaf  of  the  table  fol- 
lowing the  outlines  of  the  supports.  The  square,  tapering  leg  of  the  Hepple- 
white table  is  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  top,  which,  though  curved,  is  completed 
by  square  corners.  Sheraton's  design  meets  the  same  test,  the  rounded  corners 
outlining  the  curved  supports. 

The  chest  of  drawers,  or  bureau  in  our  modern  acceptance  of  the  word,  is  an 
excellent  example  of  Sheraton's  principle  of  construction.  Here  again  we  see  the 
curved  front  in  conjunction  with  the  rounded  support.  The  fluted  column  begins 
at  the  top  of  the  second  drawer  and  ends  at  the  base  of  the  lower  drawer.  Above 
the  fluting  is  the  "corn  and  husk"  motif  executed  in  a  conventionalized  manner; 
below  is  a  turned  leg  of  admirable  proportions.  The  drawers  have  narrow  moldings 
and  brass  handles  of  a  simple  pattern.  Narrow  beading  outlines  each  plate  which 
is  further  decorated  by  a  small  rosette. 

The  sofa  Is  a  typical  example  of  Sheraton's  work,  having  the  fluted  support  and 
delicate  carvings  in  low  relief.  The  back  of  the  sofa  shows  the  festoon  pattern  used 
.so  freely  by  the  Adam  brothers  in  their  interiors. 

151 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


Sheraton's  chairs  are  easily  distin- 
guished frqni  those  of  Chippendale 
and  Hepplewhite.  He  seldom  used 
the  shield-back  of  the  latter  and 
never  the  pierced  splat  of  the  former. 
His  treatment  of  the  shield  or  heart- 
shaped  back  was  unlike  that  of  Hep- 
plewhite. The  top  of  the  shield  was 
straighter  and  the  carving  much  more 
severe.  In  America  this  type  of  chair 
is  seldom  .seen.  Sheraton's  fame  as  a 
chair-maker  on  this  side  of  the  water 
rests  almost  entirely  on  the  rectangu- 
lar back,  an  excellent  example  of 
which  is  illustrated  on  page  150. 

Sheraton  furniture  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes — carved,  inlaid,  and 
painted.  To  the  first  division  belong 
the  pieces  illustrated  here,  together 
with  the  beautiful  sideboards,  which 
are  perhaps  most  characteristic  of  all 

Sheraton's  designs.  His  desks,  bookcases,  and  writing-tables  belong  also  to  this  class, 
but  are  less  familiar  in  America  than  in  England.  In  the  second  list  may  be  grouped 
the  graceful  drop-leaf  tables,  orna- 
mented with  narrow  lines  of  inlay, 
the  pretty  tea-trays,  knife-cases,  and 
writing-boxes,  the  latter  often  show- 
ing an  insert  of  sycamore  and  tulip- 
wood.  The  third  division  includes 
the  furniture  designed  by  Sheraton 
and  decorated  by  Angelica  Kauff- 
man,  Pergolesi,  and  Cipriani.  Many 
of  these  pieces  were  executed  for  the 
Adam  brothers  and  were  of  exquis- 
ite workmanship.  Satin  wood  form- 
ed the  basis  of  the  larger  portion  of 
this  work,  and  when  decorated  sug- 
gested Italian  "gesso."  The  Ken- 
sington Museum  contains  splendid 


ENGLISH  FURNITURE  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


specimens  of  this  fur- 
niture, and  occasional 
pieces  are  found  in  pri- 
vate collections. 

Like  Hepplewhite  and 
Chippendale,  Sheraton 
worked  largely  in  ma- 
hogany, but  he  did  not 
confine  himself  to  this 
wood.  Sycamore,  hare- 
wood,  tulipwood,  and 
kingwood  he  used  liber- 
ally in  his  smaller  piec- 
es of  furniture.  He 
wielded  the  highly  color- 
ed woods  as  a  painter 
does  his  pigments,  and 
it  is  on  this  score  that 
he  is  justly  called  a  "col- 
or-poet." Hare  wood , 
which  was  sycamore 
dyed  a  pale  shade  of 
brown,  white  wood,  stain- 
ed apple-green,  satin- 
wood  in  its  lovely^  nat- 
ural tone,  and  kingwood, 
of  deeper  coloring,  were  used  by  this  man  with  marvelous  skill.  Other  cabinet- 
makers combined  these  woods  but,  never  on  English  soil,  with  such  consummate 
art. 

Sheraton  was  a  many-sided  genius  and  met  the  fate  of  the  man  who  does  many 
things  well.  He  lived  and  died  poor.  Adam  Black  to  whom  the  world  is  indebted 
for  most  of  its  knowledge  of  Sheraton's  private  life  has  written  graphically  of  the 
cabinet-maker  hi  his  "Memoirs."  Black  was  born  in  1783  and  died  in  1872.  At 
one  time  he  was  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburg.  In  his  early  career  he  was  employed 
by  Sheraton,  at  a  time  when  the  great  furniture-maker  was  devoting  himself  to 
many  pursuits.  Black  writes:  "He  lived  in  a  poor  street  in  London,  his  house 
half  shop,  half  dwelling,  and  looked  himself  like  a  Methodist  preacher.  He  had 
been  a  cabinet-maker,  and  was  now  author,  publisher,  and  teacher  of  drawing,  and, 
I  believe,  occasionally,  preacher."  Again,  he  says:  "This  many-sided  individual 

153 


SHERATON   SIDE-BOARD   AND   CHIPPENDALE   MIRROR 


ENGLISH     FURNITURE    OF    THE     EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY 

is  an  interesting  character.  He  is  a  man  of  talent.  He  is  a  scholar,  writes  well, 
and,  in  my  opinion,  draws  masterly.  We  may  be  ready  to  ask  how  comes  it  to  pass 
that  a  man  with  such  abilities  and  resources  is  in  such  a  state?  I  believe  his  abilities 
and  resources  are  his  ruin  in  this  respect,  for  by  attempting  to  do  everything  he  does 
nothing." 

"Would  that  most  people's  'nothing'  might  prove  to  be  as  much,"  says  B. 
Wyllie,  Esq.,  the  Englishman  already  quoted.  "I  find  myself  wondering,"  he  adds, 
"if  his  paintings  and  his  writings  would  have  given  as  much  pleasure  to  the  world 
as  his  furniture  has  undoubtedly  given,  supposing  he  had  been  able  to  devote  him- 
self to  those  arts." 


15* 


CHAPTEE   XIII 

FURNITURE    OF   THE  FRENCH   EMPIRE 

CHARACTERISTICS  OP  THE  STYLE:  THE  TORCH,  THE  WREATH,  THE 
SPHINX,  THE  ATHENIAN  BEES,  AND  THE  GREEK  HONEYSUCKLE. 
CARVING  AND  MARQUETRY  WERE  DISCARDED  AND  PLAIN  SURFACES 
WERE  COVERED  WITH  CHISELED  MOUNTS  OF  BRASS  AND  ORMOLU. 
SIMPLE  EMPIRE  TYPES  WERE  FULL  OF  BEAUTY  BUT  THE  FINAL  DE- 
VELOPMENT WAS  CLUMSY  AND  GROTESQUE. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FURNITURE  OF  THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE 

THE  Empire  style  marked  the  last  of  the  great  historic  epochs  in  furniture 
and  decoration.  It  was  cold  and  formal,  reflecting  the  personality  of  the 
men  so  closely  identified  with  its  development.  The  Revolution  brought 
chaos  to  the  industries  of  France  which  had  so  flourished  under  the  old 
regime.  Furniture-makers  and  metal-workers  were  thrown  out  of  employment. 
Many  suffered  imprisonment  or  death  by  the  guillotine.  With  few  exceptions  the 
artist-artisans  of  the  Louis  XVI  period  had  little  part  in  the  handicraft  of  the 
Empire.  Riesener,  escaping  the  fate  of  Gouthiere  and  other  famous  furniture- 
makers,  designed  many  pieces  in  the  new  style,  but  his  name  lives  in  his  earlier 
work.  The  Directory  and  the  Consulate  were  periods  of  construction.  In  the  arts 
the  process  of  rebuilding  is  slow.  David's  name  is  associated  with  this  transition 
from  old  forms  to  the  new,  and  with  him  must  be  mentioned  Charles  Percier  and 
Pierre  Fontaine.  Percier  was  architect  to  Napoleon  during  the  Consulate  and 
ranks  with  Fontaine  as  a  celebrated  craftsman  of  the  period.  Napoleon  was  not  a 
patron  of  the  arts,  yet  no  monarch  of  the  old  regime  had  so  dominated  a  style.  The 
letter  "N"  is  stamped  over  the  entire  decorative  scheme  of  the  Empire.  Conquest 
and  victory  are  spelled  in  every  line. 

Designers  of  Louis  XVI's  day  lauded  the  classics,  but  seldom  to  the  extent  of 
the  Empire  artists  and  never  to  the  glory  of  one  man.  The  laurel  leaves  of  the 
preceding  style  were  rearranged  and  twisted  into  a  victor's  wreath.  The  fluted 
column  upheld  a  torch.  Roman  and  Grecian  emblems  were  used  lavishly.  "Paris 
was  to  become  a  new  Athens,  Napoleon  a  Caesar,  and  France  a  second  Roman  Em- 
pire." The  craze  for  the  antique  transformed  the  dress  of  the  day.  Statesmen  wore 
togas  and  court  ladies  donned  the  gowns  of  Grecian  goddesses. 

Architects,  decorators,  and  furniture-makers  were  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the 
hour.  The  classic  lived  again  and,  if  somewhat  inconsistent,  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
day  overlooked  all  shortcomings. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  Empire  style  were  the  wreath  and  torch,  the 
Roman  eagle,  the  Athenian  bees,  the  Greek  fret,  and  the  honeysuckle.  After  the 
campaign  hi  Egypt  the  sphinx  was  added  to  the  medley  and  became  a  conspic- 
uous feature  in  both  furniture  and  decoration.  Distinctive  qualities  of  the  furniture 
of  the  period  are  few  and  easily  mastered.  Constructively  the  plain  column  and  the 
claw-foot  are  the  most  salient  features ;  decoratively  the  wreath  and  torch  are  most 

157 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


prominent.  Marquetry  was  discarded  and  plain  surfaces  were  covered  with  orna- 
mental mounts  of  chiseled  brass  and  ormolu.  Chairs  showed  a  square  frame  with 
a  plain  round  leg,  ornamented  with  mounts  of  characteristic  patterns.  The  chairs  in 
Compiegne,  illustrated  here,  are  typical  of  the  style.  Although  imperial  pieces- 
they  do  not  differ  from  the  chairs  of  a  private  house.  They  are  enameled  white 
and  ornamented  with  the  Greek  honeysuckle.  The  divan  on  page  160  has  the  an- 
tique outlines  so  affected  by  furniture-makers.  David  painted  Madame  Recamier 
on  such  a  couch,  the  "Grecian  attitude"  being  carefully  preserved. 

The  carving  of  the  Compiegne  couch  is  in  the  "running  laurel  pattern."  It  was- 
hard  for  craftsmen  to  get  away  from  the  bay  leaf.  When  the  surface  to  be  treated 
was  too  small  for  a  wreath,  the  laurel  was  introduced  in  the  manner  shown. 

Tables  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes — those  with  a  center  column, 
terminating  in  a  broad  base  with  claw  feet,  and  those  of  a  heavier  build,  sup- 
ported by  sphinxes.  The  first  type  is  well  known  in  this  country  through  countless- 
" colonial"  adaptations. 

Beds  during  the  period  of  the  Empire  were  stately  couches  and  form  striking 
contrast  to  the  luxurious  beds  of  the  French  kings.  Napoleon's  bedchamber  in 

Fontainebleau  shows  the  ever-present 
emblems  of  conquest  which,  even  in  a 
sleeping  apartment,  were  never  absent. 
The  torch,  the  eagle,  and  the  wreath 
are  all  represented. 

The  work  of  Percier  was  marked  by 
great  delicacy,  but  a  large  portion  of 
the  later  work  of  the  Empire  was  clumsy 
and  absurd.  Commodes  and  cabinets- 
lost  their  real  significance  and  became 
mere  vehicles  for  the  display  of  gran- 
diose metal-work. 

Unlike  the  Louis  XV  artisans  the 
Empire  furniture-makers  lost  sight  of 
fitness.  "  They  were  too  much  in  earnest 
to  be  content,  as  were  the  artists  of  the 
old  regime,  with  borrowing  the  antique 
lines  only  to  playfully  transpose  them 
by  their  own  genius  with  a  French 
grace  and  elegance,  and  to  thus  amal- 
gamate them  with  the  national  style. 
The  designers  of  the  Empire  were  any- 

158 


ROMAN    CEREMONIAL   CHAIR 


FURNITURE   OF  THE   FRENCH    EMPIRE 


BEDROOM  OF  NAPOLEON  I,  FONTAINEBLEAU 

thing  but  playful  in  spirit.  Their  antiquity  was  to  be  actual  antiquity,  drawn  purely 
from  the  fountain-head  and  admitting  of  no  admixture.  As  the  pieces  of  furniture 
necessary  to  modern  comfort  had  greatly  increased  since  the  days  of  the  ancients,  the 
designers,  fearful  of  the  risk  of  departing  from  precedents,  found  themselves  in  a  quan- 
dary. Not  daring  to  create  they  concealed  the  new  constructive  lines  by  an  overlay  of 
incongruous  accessories.  The  arm-chair  was  made  to  resemble  the  ancient  curule  seat 

159 


a 

,1 

S 

- 


FURNITURE  OF  THE   FRENCH   EMPIRE 


as  far  as  possible,  but  when  arms  were  to  be  added,  the  best  that  they  could  do  with 
them  was  to  turn  them  into  swans'  necks,  and  support  them  by  cupids.  The  legs 
of  the  most  harmless  tables  became  bristling  griffins.  Flaming  torches  bore  the 
cradle  of  the  sleeping  babe,  a  chair  rested  upon  horns  of  plenty,  the  bed  became  a 
barge,  its  peaceful  curtains  upheld  by  sheaves  of  lances.  In  a  word  the  designers 
were  embarrassed  by  the  self-imposed  necessity  for  torturing  the  most  obvious  and 
simplest  forms  into  symbolic  paraphernalia  of  antiquity.  Take  the  clock  for  an 
example.  The  dial,  ordinarily  its  most  salient  and  characteristic  feature,  became  a 
mere  accessory.  It  was  blushed  for  as  a  modern  thing  and  hidden  with  great 
ingenuity.  It  started  out  of  the  wheel  of  an  antique  chariot  in  which  a  warrior 
rode.  It  was  set  into  the  rock  upon  which  Telemachus  reclined.  It  became  the 
globe  which  Aspasia  carried  on  her  knee." 

In  its  plainer  form  the  Empire  style  was  full  of  dignity.  If  it  lacked  the  charm  of 
the  graceful  Louis  XVI  style  it  had,  on  the  other  hand,  qualities  of  repose  and 
stability  which  placed  it  far  above  some  of  its  predecessors.  One  of  the  most  inter- 
esting phases  was  the  strong  influence  which  it  exerted  upon  American  furniture- 
making  of  the  early  nineteenth  century. 


161 


CHAPTER  XIY 

COLONIAL  FURNITURE 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  STYLE:  AFTER  PIONEER  DAYS  THE  COLO- 
NISTS MODELED  THEIR  HOMES  ON  THOSE  OF  THEIR  NATIVE  LAND. 
EARLY  FURNITURE  WAS  THE  HEAVY  OAK  OF  THE  OLD  COUNTRY  OR 
PINE  AND  DEAL  PIECES  MADE  IN  THE  COLONIES.  TOWARD  THE 
END  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY  THE  TRANSITION  FROM 
MASSIVE  TO  MORE  GRACEFUL  FORMS  TOOK  PLACE.  THE  INTRODUC- 
TION OF  MAHOGANY  IN  ENGLAND  SOON  INFLUENCED  FURNITURE- 
MAKIXG  ON  THIS  SIDE  OF  THE  WATER,  AND  FOR  FIFTY  YEARS 
CHIPPENDALE,  HEPPLEWHITE,  AND  SHERATON  WERE  THE  GUIDING 
STARS  OF  AMERICAN  DESIGNERS.  EARLY  IN  THE  NINETEENTH 
CENTURY  ENGLISH  PATTERNS  DECLINED  IN  FAVOR  AND  FRENCH 
INFLUENCE  BECAME  PARAMOUNT.  THE  EMPIRE  STYLE  MARKED 
THE  END  OF  COLONIAL  FURNITURE-MAKING. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

COLONIAL  FURNITURE. 

THE  term  "colonial  furniture,"  used  in  its  literal  sense, includes  the  household 
effects  of  the  colonists  from  the  time  of  the  settlement  at  Jamestown  until 
the  war  of  the  Revolution.  This  restricted  definition  excludes  the  work  of 
the  great  English  cabinet-makers  of  the  late  eighteenth  century,  and  all  pieces 
which  owe  their  origin  to  the  style  known  as  the  Empire.  Thus  the  furniture 
of  Sheraton  and  Hepplewhite,  and  the  later  designs  of  Chippendale,  are  debarred 
from  the  category,  together  with  all  those  massive  mahogany  shapes  having  carved 
columns  and  claw-feet  which  have  long  been  the  stronghold  of  colonial  collections. 
Correctly  speaking,  these  pieces  should  be  classed  as  late  Georgian  and  American 
Empire.  To  limit  the  adjective  "colonial"  to  the  furniture  imported  or  made  by 
the  colonists  prior  to  1776  would  disqualify  more  than  half  of  the  old  mahogany  in 
this  country.  The  word  has  been  used  so  long  in  a  wider  sense  and  has  been  applied 
so  continually  to  everything  in  furniture,  from  the  earliest  possessions  of  the  Pil- 
grims to  the  designs  in  vogue  as  late  as  1820,  that  it  is  doubtful  if  the  literal  meaning 
is  ever  accepted.  From  one  point  of  view  the  broader  use  of  the  term  is  the  right 
one.  It  was  not  until  1830  that  American  furniture-makers  ceased  to  be  governed 
by  the  standards  of  the  Old  World.  English  taste  in  house-furnishing  prevailed 
long  after  English  supremacy  was  at  an  end.  The  colonial  period  in  furniture  out- 
lived the  colonial  period  in  history  fifty  years.  When  black  walnut  replaced 
mahogany  and  styles  became  "indigenous,"  the  last  vestige  of  outside  influence 
was  over.  Then  came  the  decline. 

In  the  accepted  definition  two  centuries  of  furniture-making  are  covered, 
1620-1820.  The  first  hundred  years  may  be  called  the  age  of  oak,  and  the  second 
the  age  of  mahogany.  During  the  earlier  period  the  history  of  all  handicraft 
in  this  country  was  closely  allied  to  that  of  England  and  Holland.  In  the  later 
epoch  Dutch  influence  lessened,  and  England  shared  with  France  the  honor  of 
molding  taste  in  America. 

The  early  seventeenth  century  in  England  was  a  time  of  transition.  The  Tudor 
adaptation  of  the  Renaissance  was  slowly  giving  way  to  the  Jacobean.  Furniture 
was  heavy  in  every  sense  of  the  word  and  exhibited  a  combination  of  styles  which 
bordered  on  the  grotesque.  A  little  leaven  of  simplicity  was  sadly  needed  and 
this,  later  in  the  century,  was  provided  by  the  Dutch.  When  William  of 
Orange  became  king  of  England,  in  1688,  the  triumph  of  Dutch  designs  was  com- 

165 


OLD  CRADLE,  BROUGHT     OVER    IN    THE    MAYFLOWER, 
1620.       PILGRIM    HALL,    PLYMOUTH,  MASS. 


plete.  Holland  occupied  a  unique  position  commercially.  She  was  in  touch  with 
the  great  nations  of  the  world,  and  wielded  a  power  second  only  to  that  of  Italy. 
Her  ports  were  open  to  Spain,  Portugal,  China,  and  Japan.  Via  Flanders  came 
French  and  Italian  merchandise.  With  the  accession  of  William  the  best  that 
Holland  possessed  passed  into  England.  Furniture-making  was  permanently  bene- 
fited by  the  introduction  of  Dutch,  Flemish,  and  Spanish  models.  In  an  Anglicized 
form  many  of  these  types  reached  the  colonies.  In  New  England  styles  in  furniture 
were  of  tardy  growth.  In  the  south,  where  a  closer  touch  was  kept  with  England, 
fashions  in  costumes  and  in  house  furnishings  changed  more  rapidly. 

Colonial  furniture,  from  the  first,  showed  a  variety  of  types,  for  the  early  settlers 
reproduced  as  nearly  as  was  possible,  in  a  strange  country,  the  homes  of  their  native 

166 


COLONIAL  FURNITURE 


land.  The  furniture  of  the  Pilgrims  was  unlike  that  of  the  English  colonists  in  the 
south,  and  each  differed  from  that  of  the  Dutch  settlers.  Equally  distinct  were  the 
household  belongings  of  the  Huguenots  in  Canada,  and  they  in  turn  were  unlike 
those  of  the  French  explorers  in  Louisiana.  The  Quaker  and  Swedish  settlers  in 
Pennsylvania  added  still  another  element.  While  the  English  of  the  south  were 
fairly  representative  of  one  class,  and  lived  after  the  manner  of  their  kind  in  the  old 


EARLY   NEW  ENGLAND   INTERIOR,    SHOWING    PINE   SETTLE 

country,  there  were  slight  differences  between  the  colonial  homes  of  Virginia  and 
those  of  Georgia  and  Carolina.  After  the  roughness  of  pioneer  life  passed  away  the 
dividing  lines  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch,  and  between  the  north  and  the 
south,  became  more  marked,  and  remained  so  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  At  that  time  Manhattan  had  been  for  some  years  under  English  rule, 
and  the  Massachusetts  settlers,  with  increasing  prosperity,  were  enabled  to  main- 
tain a  more  comfortable  style  of  living. 

The  early  homes  of  the  Pilgrims  and  the  Puritans  were  sparsely  furnished.     The 
struggle  for  existence  in  those  first  bleak  winters  made  everything  but  the  bare 

167 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY     CHAIRS 


necessities  impossible.  Long  "settles, 
built  with  high  backs  to  shut  out  the 
wind,  turned  chairs  of  local  workman- 
ship, a  few  chests,  plain  deal  tables,  and 
an  occasional  arm-chair  comprised  the 
furnishings  of  the  main  apartment  in 
the  usual  New  England  house.  The 
original  Mayflower  furniture  was  of 
the  simplest  description  and  extremely 
meager.  Inasmuch  as  the  Mayflower 
made  several  voyages  between  old  Ply- 
mouth and  new  Plymouth,  and  each 
time  returned  to  America  laden  with 
household  belongings,  it  is  quite  true 
that  a  good  deal  of  furniture  "came 
over  in  the  Mayflower/'  but  it  did  not 
come  on  the  first  passage.  In  Pilgrim 

Hall  are  several  pieces  which  may  be  considered  the  genuine  Mayflower  articles.  Pere- 
grine White's  rude  cradle,  Miles  Standish's  ship  chest,  and  the  chairs  used  by  Gov- 
ernor Carver  and  Elder  Brewster  are  among  the  relics  of  that  memorable  first 
voyage.  The  chairs  are  noteworthy  as  they  represent  the  earliest  type  known  in 
New  England.  They  have  turned  posts  and  spindles,  and  are  sturdily  built.  Little 
used  by  the  Dutch  and  lightly  regarded  by  the  southern  planters,  this  severe  type 
was  the  common  one  in  the  homes  of  the  Plymouth  and  Bay  colonists.  Many  of  the 
turned  chairs  wrere  imported,  but  judging  from  old  inventories,  quantities  were  made 
in  this  country. 

Among  the  first  trades  mentioned  in  New  England  records  were  those  of  the 
housewright,  the  joiner,  the  carver,  and  the  turner.  The  list  of  men  who  earned 
their  living  by  furniture-making  was  a  long  one.  In  the  Bay  colony  were  John  Dix, 
joiner;  William  Pettigrew,  turner;  Increase  Allen,  carver;  Thomas  Tarbox,  clock- 
maker;  Solomon  Andrews,  turner;  Ebenezer  Holworthy,  varnisher;  Martin  Rogers, 
upholsterer.  In  1642  there  were  twenty  joiners  in  Boston  and  over  thirty  turners. 
In  the  Plymouth  colony  Kenelm  Wynslow  was  a  prominent  furniture-maker  and 
was  a  registered  craftsman  in  1634. 

Six  years  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  a  law  was  passed  in  which  it  was 
declared  that  "no  handicrafts  men  soever  as  taylors,  shoemakers,  carpenters,  joiners, 
smiths,  sawyers,  or  whatsoever,  which  doe  or  may  reside  or  belong  to  the  plantation 
Plimoth,  shall  use  their  science  or  trades  at  home,  or  abroad,  for  any  strangers  or 
foreigners,  till  such  time  as  the  colony  be  served." 

168 


COLONIAL   FURNITURE 


The  boundless  forests  of  New  England  supplied  workmen  with  oak,  walnut,  ash, 
hickory,  cedar,  maple,  deal,  birch,  cherry,  and  pine.  Imported  furniture  was  usually 
of  oak,  but  native  pieces  were  often  of  the  softer  woods.  Painted  furniture  formed 
a  large  part  of  the  turner's  stock  in  trade.  To  the  heavy  coats  of  paint  is  due  the 
preservation  of  many  an  old-time  chest  and  settle  which  would  otherwise  have  long 
since  been  destroyed. 

Contemporary  with  the  turned  chair  in  England  was  the  wainscot  chair  made 
of  oak,  and  heavily  carved.  This  chair  was  too  cumbersome  for  easy  transpor- 
tation, and  is  not  enumerated  in  the  earliest  inventories.  In  Salem,  1638,  "2  wains- 
coate  chairs"  were  among  the  household  effects  of  Giles  Perkins,  magistrate;  in 
Boston,  1640,  William  Pettigrew,  turner,  advertised  "3  wainscoate  chairs,  with 
cushions";  and  in  1643,  Deliverance  Mayhew,  of  Plymouth,  bequeathed  to  her 
daughter  Patience  "  1  wainscoate  chair,  6  turned  chairs,  and  2  joyned  stools." 

Less  massive  than  the  wainscot  chair  was  the  "leather  chair"  which  was  of 
Italian  origin.  It  was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Dutch  who  obtained  it  from 
the  Flemings.  The  Italian  model  had  the  spiral  supports  of  the  late  Renaissance 
period.  The  colonial  type  was  substantially  built,  with  turned  legs  and  heavy  under- 
braces.  Following  closely  upon  the  leather  chair  came  the  "turkey  chair" — so 
called  from  the  oriental 
fabric  with  which  it  was 
upholstered.  This  was  of 
lighter  construction  and 
was  designed  with  a  greater 
regard  for  comfort.  These 
four  styles — turned,  wain- 
scot, leather,  ana  turkey — • 
are  mentioned  over  and  over 
in  wills  and  other  docu- 
ments. A  Boston  inventory 
of  1668  includes  "2  joyned 
stools,  1  turned  chair,  4 
turkey- work  chairs,  2  deal 
chests,  plain,  1  oaken  chest, 
carved,  3  leather  chairs,  1 
chest  of  drawers,  cedar,  1 
great  wainscoate  table." 

The  wainscot  table  was 
a  combination  table  and 
chair.  Economy  of  space,  as  WAINSCOT  CHAIR  WITH  RUSH  SEAT 


FURNITURE    OF    THE    EARLY    EIGHTEENTH    CENTURY 

well  as  that  of  money,  was  an  important  factor  in  early  colonial  house-furnishing. 
Similar  to  the  wainscot  table  was  the  settle- table,  a  piece  of  furniture  which  served 
many  purposes.  When  drawn  close  to  the  fireside  it  made  a  comfortable  seat  for 
several  people.  When  the  back  was  lowered  and  adjusted  by  means  of  a  wooden 
bolt  it  formed  a  dining-table  large  enough  to  accommodate  an  entire  family. 
Beneath  the  lid  was  a  convenient  storing-place  for  household  linen  and  for  treas- 
ured pieces  of  pewter,  too  valuable  for  cupboard  or  shelf.  An  additional  device 
provided  the  settle  with  candle-holders,  which,  with  the  aid  of  the  fire,  enabled  the 
sitter  to  peruse  his  Bible  or  almanac.  The  settle  was  the  most  characteristic  article 
of  early  New  England  furniture.  Local  workmen  evolved  a  type  which  English 
designers  did  not  surpass.  Severe  in  line  and  devoid  of  ornament  it  was  far  more 
beautiful  than  the  imported  model.  Built  of  finest  oak  and  carved  with  rare  skill, 
the  old  English  settle  wins  our  admiration,  but  does  not  hold  the  eye  and  kindle  the 
imagination  as  does  the  simple  one  of  New  England  pine.  What  fireside  tales  the 
latter  suggests!  The  long  winter  evening  when  howling  winds  accentuated  the 
warmth  and  cheer  within;  when  blazing  logs  lighted  up  dim  corners,  making  gold 
the  ears  of  yellow  corn  hanging  from  the  rafters,  and  transforming  the  pewter 
dishes  on  the  dresser  into  brightest  silver!  What  dreary  theological  discussions, 
what  long  political  arguments,  what  Puritan  romances  are  conjured  up  by  the  old 
pine  settle! 

170 


COLONIAL   FURNITURE 


For  more  than  a  century  this  primitive  piece  of 
furniture  held  its  own  against  more  modern  innovations. 
In  reality  the  colonial  settle  was  simply  a  long  chest 
with  a  back  to  which  side  pieces  were  added.  The 
chest  in  New  England  passed  through  many  stages  of 
development,  some  of  them  quite  independent  of 
English  influence.  A  modification  of  the  chest  resulted 
in  a  low  set  of  drawers.  At  first  one  drawer  was 
placed  beneath  the  chest,  the  whole  being  elevated  on 
four  straight  feet.  Then  a  second  drawer  was  added. 
This  piece  of  furniture  was  the  chest  with  drawers. 
The  next  stage  was  the  chest  of  drawers  which  came 
into  existence  about  the  year  1690.  In  many  cases  the 
straight  supports  were  replaced  by  heavy  ball-feet — 
the  latter  having  become  popular  in  England.  This 
solid  ball  foot  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  claw- 
and-ball  which  was  a  later  design.  One  evolution  of 
the  chest  of  drawers  was  the  bureau,  another  was  the 
high-boy,  a  third  the  low-boy,  and  a  fourth  the  beau- 
tiful desk  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  desks  of  pioneer  colonial  days  were  in  reality 
boxes,  known  under  the  various  names  of  "writing- 
boxes,"  "desk-boxes,"  and  "paper-boxes."  They  were 
almost  exclusively  the  property  of  clergymen  and  town 
clerks.  Letter- writing  had  little  part  in  the  busy  lives 
of  the  New  Englanders. 

From  the  many  references  in  early  inventories  and 
wills  to  the  furniture  of  the  day,  a  vivid  picture  of  the 
living-rooms  of  the  first  settlers  is  presented.  The 
sleeping-rooms  of  the  period  are  less  clearly  defined. 
Little  mention  is  made  of  the  bedstead,  although  allu- 
sions to  "feather,"  "straw,"  and  "flock"  beds  are 
numerous.  From  the  massive  designs  in  vogue  in 
England  and  Holland  the  colonial  bed  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  may  be  conjectured.  Few  of  these 
heavy  structures  were  imported  until  after  1650.  A 
plainer  piece  of  furniture,  following  in  general  lines  the 
English  model,  was  made  in  the  Plymouth  and  Bay 
colonies  at  an  early  date. 

171 


SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY    CLOCK 


HISTORIC  STYLES' IN  FURNITURE 


FLEMISH    CHAIR,    SALEM,    MASSACHUSETTS,    LATE   SEV- 
ENTEENTH  CENTURY 

172 


Toward  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  the  bed  increased  in 
importance.  A  list  of  the  household 
furnishings  of  a  Salem  merchant,  in 
1690,  included  "1  great  oaken  bedd, 
1  truckle  bedd  of  maple,  1  large  sack 
bottom  bedd,  6  Camblett  bedd  cur- 
tains, 2  calicoe  bedd  curtains,  8 
blankett  sheets,  1  paire  silk  bedd 
curtains."  The  settee,  which  was  a 
link  between  the  settle  and  the  sofa, 
was  sometimes  used  as  a  bed.  This 
piece  of  furniture  was  both  of  im- 
ported and  domestic  make.  The 
back  and  seat  were  usually  incased 
in  turkey-work.  With  the  exception 
of  the  arms  and  braces  the  entire 
frame  was  concealed.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  colonial  settee  was  identi- 
cal with  one  type  of  the  Renaissance 
seat.  From  Italy  it  passed  into 
France,  and  from  France  to  England. 
Holland  had  no  part  in  its  develop- 
ment. From  the  Italian  palace-  of 
the  sixteenth  century  to  the  New 
England  home  of  the  seventeenth 
was  a  far-away  cry  and  yet,  barring 
crude  workmanship,  the  colonial 
bench  was  a  faithful  copy  of  the 
Renaissance  design.  The  Dutch  set- 
tlers were  unfamiliar  with  this  settee, 
as  they  also  were  with  the  New  Eng- 
land settle.  Aside  from  a  few  pieces 
which  were  typical  of  the  homes  of 
the  Pilgrims  and  Puritans,  the  Dutch 
colonists  possessed  a  far  greater  va- 
riety of  furniture. 

Life  in  New  Netherlands  differed 
essentially  from  life  in  New  England. 


COLONIAL    FURNITURE 


The  winters  of  Manhattan 
were  milder  and  the  Indians 
less  menacing;  but  the  chief 
difference  between  the  Eng- 
lish colonists  of  the  North 
and  the  Dutch  settlers  lay 
in  their  motives  for  seeking 
America.  The  Dutch  came 
to  colonize;  the  English  for 
religious  freedom ;  the  Dutch 
to  found  a  trading-post  in 
the  interest  of  the  ,  West 
India  Company ;  the  English, 
that  their  children  might 
escape  the  divine  right  of 
kings.  The  Dutch  were  a 
nation  of  organizers  and  the 
Manhattan  settlers  were 
equipped  with  all  the  neces- 
sities of  pioneer  life.  From 
the  first  the  privations  en- 
dured by  the  New  England- 
ers  were  unknown  to  them. 
Their  genius  for  commerce, 
coupled  with  their,  knowledge 
of  seamanship, 'robbed  the 
long  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  of  half  its  terrors.  Therefore,  a  close  touch  was  kept 
with  the  mother  country.  Returning  vessels  brought  back  Holland  bricks  and  tiles 
and  in  a  few  years  New  Amsterdam  was  old  Amsterdam  in  miniature.  While  Dutch 
sovereignty  extended  over  a  period  of  less  than  sixty  years,  Dutch  manners  and  cus- 
toms left  an  impress  that  a  century  of  English  rule  could  not  remove.  When  New 
Amsterdam  became  New  York,  and  Rensselaerswyck  became  Albany,  it  was  a  change 
of  letter,  and  little  else.  The  English  crown  was  added  to  the  arms  of  the  colony,  but 
the  Dutch  beaver  was  not  displaced,  and  the  loyal  Hollanders  still  sang  Boven  Orange. 
Madam  Knight,  a  Massachusetts  traveler  visiting  Manhattan  in  1704,  writes  in 
her  journal:  "The  Buildings,  Brick  generally,  are  very  stately,  and  high,  though  not 
altogether  like  ours  in  Boston.  The  Bricks  in  some  of  the  Houses  are  of  divers 
coullers,  and  laid  in  checkers,  being  glazed,  and  very  agreeable.  The  inside  of  them 
is  neat  to  admiration.  The  fireplaces  have  no  Jambs,  as  ours  have.  But  the  backs 

173 


QUEEN  ANNE  CHAIR,  EARLY  EIGHTEENTH    CENTLKV 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


MAHOGANY    LOW-BOY    WITH    CABRIOLE  LEG  AND  CLUB  FOOT 

run  flush  with  the  walls,  and  the  Hearth  is  of  tyles  and  is  as  farr  out  into  the  Room 
at  the  ends  as  before  the  fire,  which  is  generally  Five  foot  in  the  Low'r  rooms;  and 
the  piece  over  where  the  mantel  should  be  is  made  as  ours  with  joyner's  work,  and 
I  suppose  fastened  to  iron  rodds  inside.  The  hearths  are  laid  with  tyles  in  divers 
forms  and  coullers." 

The  big  fore-room  of  the  Dutch  dwelling  was  a  pleasant  place  with  its  great 
hearth,  its  plastered  walls,  made  bright  by  racks  of  Delft,  and  its  comfortable, 
substantial  furniture.  Chairs  there  were  in  several  patterns,  tables  of  various 
designs,  long  built-in  settles,  painted  and  carved  chests,  and  a  great  assortment  of 
cupboards.  Most  of  these  pieces  were  imported.  The  trade  of  the  turner  and 
joiner  did  not  flourish  in  Manhattan  as  it  did  in  Massachusetts.  The  close  touch 
kept  with  Holland  made  domestic  furniture  unnecessary.  Many  of  the  chests  and 
cupboards  were  richly  carved,  some  were  painted  in  the  bright  colors  which  the 
Dutch  loved  so  well,  others  were  ornamented  with  marquetry.  The  various  cup- 

174 


COLONIAL   FURNITURE 


boards   chronicled   in  New  Amsterdam  inventories  are  bewildering.     There  were 

cupboards  for  linen,  for  silver,  for  Delft  dishes;  cupboards  for  hats,  for  cloaks,  and 

for  shoes.     An  important  piece  of  furniture  was  the  kos,  or  kas,  upon  which  the 

finest  marquetry  and  carving  were  lavished.     The  kas  was  a  huge  cupboard,  or 

press,  and  was  the  most  characteristic  article  of  Dutch  handicraft.     Ornamented  to 

a   high  degree,  it  was  often  the  most  sumptuous  piece  of  furniture  in  the  house. 

When  inlaid  with  tropical  woods  it  presented  a  brilliant  appearance  and  rivaled  a 

Dutch  tulip  garden  in  wealth  of  color. 

The  kas   was   handed  down    from  one 

generation  to  another,  and  was  carefully 

recorded  in  the  wills  of  the  period.     The 

widow  of    Governor    Stuyvesant    made 

mention  of  hers  in  the  following  manner: 

"To  my  son,  Nicoleas,  I  leave  my  great 

kas,  or  cubbard,  standing  at  the  house  of 

Mr.  Johnannes  Van  Brugh,  together  with 

all  the  China  earthen  ware  lock'd  up  in 

said  cubbard." 

This  same  Johannes  Van  Brugh  pre- 
sented his  daughter  Katherine,  at  the 
time  of  her  marriage  to  Philip  Livings- 
ton, with  a  superb  kas.  It  has  been 
described  by  Mrs.  John  King  Van  Rens- 
selaer,  into  whose  family  it  passed  by 
inheritance.  "Th£  kas  is  of  oak,  and 
handsomely  carved  on  the  outside,  and 
is  filled  with  curiously  contrived  small 
drawers  and  receptacles,  and  had  ample 
room  for  the  linen  and  silver  of  the  house- 
hold of  its  mistress.  The  keyhole  is  con- 
cealed under  a  swing-cover  of  wood, 
which,  when  in  place,  looks  like  part  of 
the  ornamental  carving;  and  the  great 
iron  key,  with  its  crooked  wards,  seems 
more  fitted  to  unlock  a  fortress  than  a 
marriage-chest."  Katherine  Van  Brugh 
Livingston  owned  the  finest  dinner-set 
of  Delft  in  New  Amsterdam,  numbering 
more  than  a  hundred  peices  and  doubt- 


MAHOGANY    HIGH-BOY    WITH    SCROLL   TOP 


175 


HISTORIC   STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


less   some   of  the    treasured   dishes   were 
stored  in  this  great  kas. 

Typically  Dutch  was  the  slaap-bauck, 
or  built-in  bedstead,  one  of  the  few  pieces 
of  furniture  which  was  not  sent  over  from 
Holland.  This  was  usually  provided  by 
the  builder  of  the  house.  When  Oloff  Van 
Cortlandt  erected  a  home  in  the  Bowerie 
for  his  bride,  Annekje  Lockermans,  it  was 
stipulated  in  the  contract  that  special 
care  should  be  taken  in  making  the  slaap- 
bauck.  In  the  Cortlandt  house,  which  was 
one  of  the  most  pretentious  in  town,  the 
slaap-bauck  was  placed  in  the  sitting- 
room,  and  was  arranged  solely  for  guests 
who  might  arrive  unexpectedly.  It  was 
built  behind  a  sliding  door,  which  concealed 
it  by  day,  and  which  could  be  lowered 
at  night  to  form  a  shelf  for  the  mattress. 
In  many  houses  this  simple  contrivance 
was  the  only  provision  made  for  sleeping. 
The  old  Dutch  slaap-bauck  was  the  ances- 
tor of  the  modern  folding-bed. 

In  the  small  articles  of  furniture  the 
homes  of  Manhattan  were  particularly  rich. 
Mirrors,  clocks,  pictures,  china  ornaments, 
and  candlesticks  were  ordered  directly  from  Amsterdam.  The  hanging  clocks  of 
brass  were  among  the  most  beautiful  of  the  importations.  The  dials  were  decorated 
with  heraldic  devices  in  color,  surmounted  by  picturesque  figures  in  hammered  metal. 
Holland's  extensive  foreign  trade  was  shown  in  the  bric-a-brac.  The  china  ornaments, 
variously  referred  to  as  mantel  and  chimney  images,  were  of  East  India  origin.  Inter- 
esting bits  were  lacquers  from  Japan  and  ivory  carvings  from  China.  These  quaint 
souvenirs  of  long  sea  voyages  gave  color  to  the  Dutch  interiors,  and  emphasized  the 
difference  between  the  homes  of  New  Netherlands  and  the  somber  ones  of  New  England. 
Pewter  played  a  prominent  part  in  the  interiors  of  Manhattan.  Cupboards  and 
racks  were  filled  with  bowls  and  porringers,  the  latter  hanging  by  their  beaten 
handles  in  precise  rows.  Proud  was  the  Vrouw  of  her  pewter;  prouder  of  her  silver. 
This  was  not  exposed  to  the  view  of  any  chance  visitor.  Hidden  away  in  heavy 
oak  chests  were  the  precious  pieces — treasured  heirlooms  handed  down  from  one 

176 


CORNER    CUPBOARD    WITH     SCROLL    TOP 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN   FURNITURE 


generation  to  another.  The 
collection  slowly  increased,  for 
members  of  the  family  were 
encouraged  to  put  their  earn- 
ings into  silver.  The  money 
thus  saved  was  called  "silver 
money,"  and  was  sent  to  Hol- 
land when  a  favorable  occasion 
presented  itself.  Into  the  hands 
of  some  trustworthy  sea-cap- 
tain it  was  given,  and  after 
many  months  the  little  heap  of 
coins  returned  in  the  guise  of 
a  beeker,  a  sugar-box,  or — per- 
haps a  coffee-urn.  Then  it  was 
carefully  wrapped  and  put 
away  in  the  chest,  entered  in 
an  inventory,  and  mentioned 
later  in  a  will,  but  not  brought 
forth,  except  to  grace  a  chris- 
tening or  a  wedding. 

With  the  coming  of  the  Eng- 
lish settlers  to  Virginia  a  much 

more  luxurious  phase  of  colonial  life  came  into  existence.  Under  the  royal  charter  land 
grants  were  extensive  and  the  estates  of  the  Virginia  plantation  included  miles  of  terri- 
tory. Toward  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  home  of  the  southern  colonist 
was  one  of  ease  and  was  closely  modeled  on  that  of  the  English  land-owner.  Fa- 
vored by  climate,  and  served  by  faithful  slaves,  the  problems  that  confronted  the 
northern  colonist  were  unknown  to  the  Virginia  gentleman.  Blessed  by  wealth  and 
education,  he  had  the  leisure  to  cultivate  the  gentle  arts  of  living. 

Land  passed  from  father  to  son,  each  in  turn  adding  to  the  beauty  of  the  estate. 
American  architecture  of  the  seventeenth  century  reached  its  height  in  the  mansions 
of  Virginia  and  her  sister  colony,  Maryland.  Old  letters  and  inventories  show  that 
these  houses  were  richly  furnished.  Mention  is  made  of  Westover,  the  home  of 
William  Byrd,  Esq.,  with  its  paneled  hall  and  carved  staircase,  its  dining-room, 
furnished  in  oak,  and  its  "faire  south  parlour,"  hung  in  silken  curtains  of  Italian 
weave.  William  Byrd  possessed  a  fine  library.  His  book-plate,  executed  in  the 
Jacobean  style,  is  still  preserved. 

Robert  Carter,  of  Carotoman,  left  a  host  of  memoranda  concerning  his  mode  of 

178 


CHIPPENDALE    ROUNDABOUT    CHAIR 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN  FURNITURE 


living.  The  upholstery  of  his  sedan  chair, 
the  pattern  of  his  furniture,  the  designs  of 
his  silver,  were  duly  recorded.  Thanks  to 
these  items  a  vivid  picture  is  retained  of  the 
southern  mansion  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Detailed  orders  were  sent  to  London  mer- 
chants, and  the  newest  styles  in  furniture 
and  table-ware  soon  found  their  way  across 
the  water. 

The  carved  oak  which  has  been  handed 
down  in  many  Virginia  families  is  of  unusual 
beauty,  and  of  a  character  unknown  in  New 
England.  Upholstery  was  used  to  a  much 
greater  extent  in  the  south  than  in  the  north. 
"Spanish  leather,  gold  Venetian  cloth,  red 
Lyons  velvet,  and  green  turkey- work"  are 
mentioned  in  a  letter  bearing  the  date  1640. 
Furniture  showed  a  great  variety  of  designs. 
Seven  kinds  of  cupboards  were  listed  in  the 
inventory  of  the  Fitz-Hugh  house.  The  court 
and  livery  cupboards  mentioned  so  often  in  colonial  documents  of  the  south,  and 
occasionally  in  those  of  New  England,  were  carved  and  paneled  in  the  Jacobean 
style.  The  prices  for  some  of  these  pieces  were  relatively  very  high.  In  1640  the 
values  were:  "One  livery  cubbard  and  shelf,  £25;  A  great  cupbart,  £38  3s." 

Another  piece  of  furniture  which,  in  the  Puritan  house,  was  of  rigid  simplicity,  was 
the  " thousand-legged  table."  or  "gate  table."  This  was  a  peculiarly  constructed 
article  having  many  leaves,  which  were  supported  by  heavily  braced  legs.  In  the 
south  this  table  became  quite  an  ornamental  affair.  Smaller  tables  were  the 
"folding,"  and  "drawing"  ones,  which  were  similar  in  design,  but  less  richly  carved. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  England  the  heavily  carved  and 
paneled  pieces  were  replaced  by  lighter  designs.  Chairs  were  built  on  more  graceful 
lines,  tables  became  less  cumbersome,  cupboards  lost  their  massive  proportions. 
Furniture  was  constructed  with  a  greater  regard  for  comfort  and  utility.  The  new 
designs  were  easy  of  transportation,  and  soon  influenced  woodworkers  on  this  side 
of  the  water.  The  names  of  the  colonial  craftsmen  had  changed.  The  joiner  and 
the  turner  and  the  housewright  had  become  the  cabinet-maker,  the  chair-maker, 
and  the  carpenter. 

In  1690  the  "Handcrafts  Guild,"  of  Boston,  numbered  more  than  sixty  men 

180 


RARE    CHIPPENDALE    CHAIR 


HISTORIC  STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


who  made  furniture,  and 
over  forty  who  were  en- 
gaged in  the  trade  of 
upholstering.  The  execu- 
tion of  many  of  the  colo- 
nial pieces  is  of  a  high 
order,  and  bears  the  test 
of  comparison  with  Eng- 
lish work  of  the  period. 
American  woods  were  un- 
like those  of  England, 
and  this  fact  makes  the 
origin  of  most  seventeenth 
century  furniture  unmis- 
takable. Two  extremely 
interesting  pieces  intro- 
duced into  New  England 
between  1680  and  1690 
were  the  so-called  Flemish 
and  Spanish  chairs.  These 
were  seldom  copied  in  this 
country,  and  therefore 
cannot  be  confused  with 
colonial  handiwork. 

English  furniture-mak- 
ers obtained  the  designs 
from  Holland,  where  they 
had  long  been  held  in 

favor.  The  original  Spanish  chair  was  upholstered  in  leather;  the  legs  terminated 
in  hoof-shaped  feet,  and  the  underbracing  was  carved.  The  Flemish  chair 
had  scrolled  feet,  and  the  seat  and  back  were  of  finely  woven  cane.  In  being 
transplanted  from  one  country  to  another  these  chairs  lost  many  of  their 
distinctive  features.  Dutch  designers  robbed  them  of  some  of  their  grace  and  Eng- 
lish woodworkers  added  several  Jacobean  touches.  Few  Spanish  and  Flemish  chairs 
of  pure  type  reached  America.  In  England  the  characteristics  of  both  were  blended, 
and  this  composite  chair  was  imported  in  great  quantities  by  both  the  northern  and 
southern  colonists.  With  Spanish  feet,  Dutch  arms,  English  back,  and  Flemish 
underbracing,  its  nationality  was  somewhat  puzzling.  The  Salem  chair,  illus- 
trated on  page  172,  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  Flemish  type  as  it  is  found  in  this 

182 


FOUR  POSTER,  LATE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


COLONIAL  FURNITURE 


country.  The  frame  of  this  old  piece  has  the  quality  of  teak,  age  having  toned  the 
wood  to  rich,  deep  brown.  Originally  the  seat  of  this  chair  was  cane  also,  the 
upholstery  being  added  at  a  later  date. 

With  the  discarding  of  the  great  cupboards,  the  elevated  chest  of  drawers, 
familiarly  known  as  high-boys,  came  into  use.  The  names  "high-boy"  and  "low- 
boy" are  not  found  in  old  furniture  annals  and  are  of  comparatively  late  date. 
"High  chests"  and  "low  chests"  are  frequently  mentioned,  and  it  was  by  these 
terms  that  they  were  known  in  colonial  days.  The  first  high-boys  contained  from 


AMERICAN    KMPIRE  TABLE 
183 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN  FURNITURE 


AMERICAN    EMPIRE     SOFA 


four  to  six  long  drawers  and  four  or  more  divided  drawers,  all  of  which  opened  with 
brass  drop  handles.  Six  turned  feet  connected  by  a  stretcher  formed  the  supports. 
The  tops  were  straight,  and  were  finished  with  a  heavy  molding.  Oak  and  walnut 
were  the  principal  woods  used  in  their  construction.  An  idea  of  their  value  may  be 
gained  from  prices  gathered  from  old  advertisements.  The  highest  figure  is  £15, 
and  the  lowest  £2  10s.  There  was  little  change  in  the  construction  of  the  high-boy 
until  about  1720,  when  the  introduction  of  the  cabriole,  or  bandy-leg,  revolutionized 
this  piece  of  furniture,  as  it  did  the  chair  and  the  table.  Instead  of  six  turned 
supports,  the  high  chest  of  drawers  rested  on  four  slender  ones.  The  stretcher,  in 
a  modified  form,  remained,  but  in  another  decade  it  was  discarded,  and  the  high-boy 
of  1730  stood  on  independent  feet.  The  high-boy,  page  175,  shows  the  type  in  use 
at  a  slightly  later  date,  when  the  scroll  top  was  introduced.  The  drawers  display  the 
fan  carving  destined  to  be  a  feature  of  so  many  colonial  pieces. 

Mr.  Luke  Vincent  Lockwood  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  high  chest  of 
drawers,  and  in  his  book,  Colonial  Furniture  in  America  presents  a  detailed  his- 
tory of  its  development.  Mr.  Lockwood  has  rendered  a  service  to  collectors  and 
to  all  lovers  of  old  furniture,  by  his  scholarly  analysis  of  colonial  styles.  In  speak- 
ing of  the  high-boy,  he  says:  "The  chest  of  drawers  proper  has  usually  four 
drawers,  graduating  in  size  from  seven  to  four  inches  in  width;  the  section  above 
the  fourth  drawer  is  divided  commonly  into  five  drawers;  a  deep  one,  ornamented 
with  the  rising  sun,  with  the  space  each  side  of  this  equally  divided  into  small 
drawers.  The  table  part  has  a  drawer  running  all  the  way  across  the  top,  and 
under  this  three  deep  drawers,  the  center  one  also  having  the  rising  sun.  The  large 
majority  of  low-boys  offered  for  sale  are  the  lower  or  table  part  of  the  high-boys, 

184 


COLONIAL  FURNITURE 


and  can  be  distinguished  from  the  table  proper  by  their  height  and  the  more  sub- 
stantial make  of  the  leg.  The  genuine  low-boy  seldom  mentions  measures  over  34 
inches  in  height;  the  high-boy  tables  average  about  38  inches.  '  The  little  low-boys, 
to  the  trained  eye,  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  pieces  made  by  supplying  a  top 
to  the  high-boy  table.  It  may  also  be  added,  that  when  they  are  thus  separated, 
the  chest  of  drawers  is  often  finished  with  feet,  and  offered  for  sale  as  a  colonial 
bureau." 

A  variation  of  the  usual  high-boy  of  1730  was  the  type  with  a  blocked  front. 
This  style  is  rarely  found  to-day,  but  the  blocked  desks  which  are  of  later  date, 
convey  an  idea  of  the  general  arrangement  of  the  drawers.  With  the  appearance 
of  the  scroll  top,  or  broken  cornice,  the  high-boy  entered  the  third  period  of  its 
development.  The  scroll  top  was  the  dividing  line  between  old  and  new  forms.  It 
transformed  the  high-boy  into  a  thing  of  beauty;  it  added  lightness  and  grace  to 
the  cupboard,  and  it  wrought  a  wonderful  change  in  the  desk.  Contemporary  with 
the  scroll  top  were  the  delicately  carved  finials  and  the  finely  executed  brass  handles. 

The  tall  clock,  no  less  than  the  high-boy,  was  improved  by  the  scroll.  When 
cabinet-makers  discarded  the  straight  cornice,  clock-makers  followed  in  their  foot- 
steps. Clock-making  in  the  colonies 
forms  a  chapter  by  itself.  The  earliest 
time-pieces  were  portable,  and  were  of 
English  make.  Hanging  clocks,  de- 
scribed in  old  documents  as  "lantern" 
and  "chamber,"  were  little  known  in 
New  England  until  the  late  seventeenth 
century.  When  tall  clocks  replaced 
them,  the  field -for  beautiful  cabinet- 
work was  a  wide  one.  The  craft  of  the 
"clock  man"  in  the  colonies  developed 
slowly.  People  of  means  imported 
their  timekeepers;  those  in  humble  cir- 
cumstances depended  on  the  hour-glass 
and  the  sun-dial.  The  eighteenth  cen- 
tury was  almost  at  an  end  before 
American  clock-making  reached  the 
dignity  of  an  art.  The  names  of  Seth 
Thomas  and  Aaron  Willard  came  into 
prominence  about  the  year  1800.  The 
"banjo"  clock  was  made  by  Willard, 
and  was  very  popular  in  the  early  AMERICAN  EMPIRE  SEWING-TABLE 


186 


HISTORIC  STYLES  IN  FURNITURE 


nineteenth  century.  Chauncey  Jerome,  at  a  later  date,  made  the  rectangular 
shelf-clock,  which  is  a  faithful  timekeeper  to-day  in  many  Connecticut  houses. 

The  year  1720  which  ended  the  first  hundred  years  of  furniture-making  in  the 
colonies,  was  an  important  date  in  England.  About  that  time  mahogany  came 
into  use  in  London.  The  introduction  of  this  wood  has  long  been  credited  to  Dr. 
Gibbon,  an  English  physician,  the  story  of  which  has  been  related  in  Chapter  XII. 

That  mahogany  furniture  was  in  limited  use  in  the  colonies  before  1720  is  now 
placed  beyond  a  doubt.  In  the  will  of  John  Jones  of  Philadelphia,  1708,  a  mahogany 
screen  is  mentioned,  and  in  a  New  York  advertisement,  of  similar  date,  a  mahogany 
chest  of  drawers  is  offered  for  sale.  The  truth  of  the  Gibbon  story  is  open  to  ques- 
tion, although  it  is  probable  that  mahogany  furniture  was  little  known  in  England 
before  the  second  decade  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  was  not  imported  to  any 
great  extent  in  this  country  until  after  the  year  1740.  Without  mahogany  the 
cabriole-legged  desks  and  secretaries,  the  carved  four-post  bedsteads,  and  the 
graceful  fiddle-back  chairs  would  not  have  reached  a  high  degree  of  beauty.  Chair- 
making,  especially,  was  revolutionized  by  the  introduction  of  this  West  India  wood. 

About  the  year  1730  "the  fiddle-back  chair,"  sometimes  called  "the  Queen 
Anne,"  sometimes  "the  Dutch,"  and  again,  "the  bandy-legged,"  became  popular 
in  the  colonies.  It  formed  an  important  link  in  the  history  of  chair-making  and 
marked  the  dividing-line  between  the  heavily  braced  types,  so  long  in  vogue,  and 
the  delicately  constructed  styles  made  famous  by  the  late  Georgian  furniture-makers. 
The  first  Queen  Anne  chairs  imported  into  New  England  were  made  with  slight 
underbraces,  but  in  the  second  style  these  were  lacking.  The  distinctive  charac- 
teristics of  the  Queen  Anne  patterns  were  the  cabriole  leg,  terminating  in  the  flat 
or  club  foot,  the  broad  splat  of  the  back,  and  the  depressed  seat.  A  fine  specimen 
of  the  second  type  is  reproduced  on  page  173.  This  is  pure  "Fiddle-Back". 

Contemporary  with  the  Queen  Anne  chairs  were  the  "slat-back"  and  "banister- 
back"  chairs.  These  were  made  with  seats  of  rush,  and  were  very  plentiful  between 
the  years  1730  and  1750.  In  the  kitchen  of  the  Whipple  house  which  is  illustrated 
on  page  177,  are  two  of  the  "slat-back"  designs.  Into  this  old  kitchen  have  been 
gathered  many  articles  typical  of  colonial  days.  The  collection  of  flax-wheels, 
churns,  lanterns,  candlesticks,  and  pewter  dishes  rivals  that  of  many  a  New  England 
museum.  A  "thousand-legged  table"  is  here,  and  in  a  shadowy  corner  may  be 
seen  a  "fan-back"  Windsor  chair.  Quite  apart  from  the  other  chairs  of  colonial 
days  were  the  many  styles  of  "Windsors."  From  1725  until  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  they  held  their  own  with  far  more  elegant  designs.  They  were  found  in  the 
homes  of  rich  and  poor  and  were  not  confined  to  any  one  locality. 

The  original  Windsors  were  of  English  make,  but  American  furniture-makers 
perfected  several  styles.  Made  of  ash  and  hickory  and  heavily  coated  with  paint, 

186 


HISTORIC    STYLES   IN   FURNITURE 


they  have  outlived  many  a 
fine  bit  of  carved  mahogany. 
The  various  American  Wind- 
sors were  known  as  "round- 
backs,"  "fan-backs,"  •  and 
"bow-backs,"  the  latter  fol- 
lowing in  a  general  way  the 
lines  of  an  archer's  bow. 
There  were  "arm-chairs," 
"rocking -  chairs,"  "  writing- 
chairs,"  and  "side-chairs" 

,,  ,  ,,  ,TT.     j  AMERICAN    EMPIRE    SOFA 

in   the    almost   endless  Wind- 
sor category.     One   of   the  sturdy  "arm-chairs"    may   be    seen  in    Washington's 
bedchamber,  at  Mt.  Vernon,  which  is  reproduced  in  this  chapter. 

The  year  1760  marked  another  stage  in  the  history  of  furniture-making  in  the 
colonies.  In  England  the  great  epoch  of  cabinet-making  was  at  hand — that  bril- 
liant period,  covering  less  than  fifty  years,  with  which  the  names  of  Chippendale, 
Hepplewhite,  and  Sheraton  are  inseparably  associated.  Shearer,  Ince,  Mayhew, 
Manwaring,  and  Richardson  were  worthy  followers  of  the  three  masters,  but  their 
influence  was  little  felt  in  America.  How  many  of  the  Chippendale,  Hepplewhite, 
and  Sheraton  pieces  found  in  this  country  actually  came  from  the  hands  of  the 
great  designers?  Their  names  have  become  generic  terms,  sometimes  denoting  a 
style,  sometimes  a  period.  "After  the  manner  of"  Chippendale,  or  Hepplewhite, 
or  Sheraton  would  be  a  safer  way  to  classify  most  of  the  late  eighteenth  and  early 
nineteenth  century  furniture  found  in  America.  Doubtless  a  great  deal  of  the  work 
in  England  which  now  bears  the  names  of  these  men  was  designed  by  them  and 
executed  by  others.  In  this  country  English  models  were  so  carefully  copied  that 
it  sometimes  is  difficult  to  locate  the  makers.  Chippendale's  influence  was  strongest 
in  America  between  the  years  1760-1780.  During  the  latter  decade,  Hepplewhite 
was  also  a  potent  factor  in  determining  styles  in  furniture.  Sheraton's  publica- 
tion, The  Cabinet-Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Drawing  Book,  appeared  in  1793.  From 
that  date  until  the  designs  of  the  Empire  came  into  fashion,  Sheraton  was  the 
guiding-star  of  the  furniture-makers  in  America. 

Fortunately  the  popularity  of  Chippendale's  Chinese  and  Gothic  styles  found 
little  echo  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Most  of  the  pieces  bearing  his  name  in 
America  are  entirely  free  from  these  absurdities.  His  early  furniture  shows  traces 
of  Dutch  influence  which  lingered  in  England  in  spite  of  newer  fashions.  He  made 
use  of  the  bandy-legged  chair,  imparting  great  delicacy  to  the  construction.  The 

188 


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5  g 

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HISTORIC   STYLES   IN  FURNITURE 


first  Chippendale  chairs  which  were  known  in  America  were  made  with  the  bandy- 
leg  and  ball-and-claw  foot.  The  backs  were  a  variation  of  the  Dutch  splat,  pierced 
and  slightly  curving.  The  next  type  imported  showed  a  more  elaborate  back,  and 
straight,  tapering  legs.  About  1770  a  slight  departure  from  the  regulation  Chip- 
pendale chair  resulted  in  the  "ladder-back"  design.  The  supports  of  this  chair 
were  straight,  and  the  back  was  divided  with  horizontal  bars.  Mt.  Vernon  contains 
several  of  these  patterns.  In  the  West  Parlor,  shown  in  the  frontispiece,  a  lad- 
der-back chair  is  placed  on  either  side  of  the  fine  Louis  XVI  fauteuil. 

Many  of  the  "roundabout"  chairs  designed  by  Chippendale  are  admirably  con- 
structed. In  his  hands  the  heavy  Dutch  model,  the  original  "roundabout,"  was 
given  a  new  beauty.  The  large  upholstered  chairs  of  the  late  colonial  period,  the 
"wing"  and  "cozy"  styles  were  not  made  by  Chippendale.  Ince  and  Manwaring 
designed  several  patterns,  which  were  more  common  in  England  than  in  this 
country.  An  American  type  of  wing  chair  is  shown  on  page  181. 

Thomas  Sheraton  made  many  chairs  and  tables,  but  in  this  country  his  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  his  sideboards.  The  urn-shaped  knife-boxes  which  are  a  part  of 
many  of  these  pieces,  show  how  strongly  he  was  guided  by  the  standards  of 
the  Adam  brothers.  Most  of  Sheraton's  work  in  this  country  is  of  a  high  order. 
To  many  minds  the  old  furniture  which  bears  his  name  is  the  finest  of  all  colonial 
styles. 

Four  famous  colonial  chairs  are  illustrated  here.  First,  the  Flemish  type; 
second,  the  pure  fiddle-back;  third,  the  Windsor;  and  fourth  the  chintz-covered 
"wing."  There  were  several  modifications  of  these  types,  but  they  were  merely 
In  detail. 

After  the  War  of  1812  English  patterns  declined  in  favor  and  furniture-makers 
turned  to  France  for  inspiration.  The  American  development  of  the  Empire  style 
is  a  lasting  credit  to  the  designers  of  this  country,  and  forms  a  fitting  close  to  the 
second  century  of  colonial  furniture-making.  The  table  and  sofa,  pages  183  and 
184,  are  typical  examples  of  the  American  Empire  and  show  what  spirit  could  be 
imparted  to  massive  designs. 

While  the  Empire  style  in  America  followed  in  a  general  way  the  trend  of  the 
movement  in  France,  it  was  free  from  the  incongruities  which  marred  many  of  the 
foreign  pieces.  Carved  columns,  claw-feet,  pine-apple  finials,  and  ornamental 
brasses  were  the  hall-marks  of  the  American  Empire.  Realistic  heads  of  lions  and 
griffins,  and  the  many  Egyptian  details  to  which  French  furniture-makers  resorted, 
were  happily  absent  from  the  work  of  the  day  on  this  side  of  the  water. 

By  1830  the  Empire  style  in  this  country  had  run  its  course.  Designs  lost  their 
vitality  and  became  heavy  and  ponderous.  When  black  walnut  superseded 
mahogany  the  characteristics  which  had  made  furniture-making  an  art  for  more 

190 


COLONIAL  FURNITURE 


than  a  hundred  years  ceased  to  exist.  Varied  as  were  colonial  types  there  were 
certain  features  common  to  all.  Whatever  extravagances  marked  English  and 
continental  styles,  designs  in  this  country  leaned  toward  simplicity.  It  is  this 
quality  that  renders  colonial  furniture  as  satisfactory  to-day  as  when  it  came  from 
the  hands  of  its  maker. 


191 


Acanthus,  33,  37,  42,  97,  104,  106,  111,  123, 

144. 

Adam,  Brothers,  138,  140,  144,  150. 
Adam,  James,  141,  145,  146. 
Adam  Style,  131,  144,  148,  151. 
Alaux,  Jean,  57. 
Anne  of  Austria,  62,  63,  99. 
Anne,  Queen,  83,  95,  61,  106. 
Anthemion,  37. 

Arabesques,  33,  37,  38,  42,  53,  144. 
Armoire,  11,  15,  108,  123,  125. 
Arras,  47 
Augsburg,  78,  103. 

Bahut,  4,  15. 
Ball-and-Claw,  133,  139. 
Ball-Foot,  78. 
Bandy-Leg,  133,  184. 
Baroque,  48,  50. 
Bartolozzi,  143. 
Bartolommeo,  Fra,  44,  50. 
Beauvais,  63,  128. 
Bedchamber,  4,  6,  16,  41,  63. 
Bedrooms,  6,  16. 
BEDS — 

Anglo-Norman,  6. 

Anglo-Saxon,  4. 

Empire,  158,  161. 

Feather,  171. 

Flock,  171. 

Renaissance,  41. 

Straw,  5,  90,  171. 
BEDSTEADS— 

Anne  of  Austria,  63. 

Elizabethan,  90,  92. 

Four-Post,  41,  181,  182,  186. 

Gothic,  16,  41. 

Louis  XIV,  106. 

Louis  XVT,  125. 

Renaissance,  41. 


Bedstocks,  90. 

Bell-Flower,  121. 

Bess  of  Hard  wick,  86. 

Blois,  Chateau  of,  56,  57,  60,  66. 

Boheme,  Hotel,  20,  21. 

Bookcases,  50,  163.  138,  140. 

Boulle  Furniture,  104,  106,  108. 

Bower,  4. 

Bureau,  15,  111,  136,  138,  151 

Bureau-Toilet.  127.  128. 

CABINETS — 

Dutch,  72. 

French,  58,  63 

Italian,  39, 

Spanish,  181. 
CABINET  MAKERS — 

Boulle,  104,  106,  108. 

Caffere,  Jacques,  114. 

Caffere,  Philippe,  112,  114. 

Carlin,  124,  128. 

Chippendale,  136,  134,  13,K,  136,  137,  138, 
188. 

Cressent,  112. 

Edwards  and  Darley,  138. 

Gillow,  138,  139. 

Gouthieie,  144,  138. 

Hepplewhite,  136,  139,  145,  15?,  188. 

Tnce,  138.  188.  190. 

Johnson,  138. 

Koek.  91. 

Langley.  Batty,  138. 

Langley,  Thomas,  138. 

Leleu,  124.  128. 

Manwaring,  138.  188,  190. 

Martin  Family,  118. 

Mayhew  138,  188. 

Oeben,  115,  124,  128. 

Richardson,  188. 

Riesener,  114,  124,  126. 


193 


INDEX 


Rontgen,  124,  126,  127. 

Saunier,  124. 

Shearer,  139,  140,  188. 

Sheraton,  139,  140,  141,  145,  188,  190. 

Thomire,  128,  133. 
Cabriole-Leg,  95,  133,  184. 
Cassoni,  42. 

Catherine  of  Prussia,  128. 
Cartouche,  33,  37,  42,  53,  58,  64. 
Cedric  's  Castle,  5. 
Ceil-Cloths,  3. 
Cellini,  Benvenuto,  40,  56. 
CHAIRS — 

Banister,  186. 

Byzantine,  8,  9. 

Cane,  66,  74,  82,  182. 

Chippendale,  136,  137,  138,  190. 

Coronation,  10,  11. 

Curule,  31,  32,  51,  158,  159. 

Dutch,  186. 

Empire,  158,  160. 

Fiddle-Back,  133,  137,  186. 

Flemish,  66,  74,  95. 

Folding,  16. 

Gothic,  9,  10,  11,  16,  26,  30. 

Hepplewhite,  140,  144. 

Ladder,  137,  190. 

Leather,  169. 

Louis  XIV,  106. 

Louis  XV,  116. 

Louis  XVI,  130. 

Queen  Anne,  186. 

Renaissance,  39,  48,  50,  66,  106. 

Roundabout,  137,  190. 

Rush,  186. 

Sheraton,  150,  152,  190. 

Slat-Back,  186. 

Spanish,  82,  182. 

Turkey,  169. 

Turned,  88,  168,  169. 

Wainscot,  88,  90,  169. 

Windsor,  186,  187. 
Chair  Cushions,  39. 
Chambord,  55,  56. 
Chandeliers,  64. 
Charles  I,  92. 
Charles  II,  94. 


Charles  V,  62,  71,  81,  85. 
Chenonceau,  55. 

Chests,  5,  6,  9,  10,  11,  15,  16,  42. 
Chests  of  Drawers,  41,  169,  171. 
Chimney-Pieces,  57,  86,  136. 
Chinese-Taste,  135,  138,  143. 
Claude,  Queen,  57. 
CLOCKS — 

Banjo,  185. 

Bracket,  119. 

Brass,  176. 

Empire,  161. 

Lantern,  185. 

Louis  XIV,  118,  119. 

Louis  XV,  118,  119. 

Louis  XVI,  123,  127. . 

Regency,  111. 

Renaissance,  42. 

Scroll-Top,  185. 

Shelf.  186. 

Tall,  185. 

Willard,  185. 

Coffered-Ceilings,  44,  45,  46. 
Coffers,  4,  10,  11,  47. 
Commode,  114,  126,  128. 
Cordovan,  30. 
Corn-Husk,  121. 
Cosimo,  Andrea  di,  42. 
Couches,  51,  158. 
Credence,  4,  15,  40. 
Cresset-Lamp,  4. 
CUPBOARDS — 

Corner,  128,  176,  185. 

Court,  90,  180. 

Dutch,  175. 

Elizabethan,  90. 

Flemish,  30,  72. 

Gothic,  30,  72. 

Jacobean,  94,  95,  180. 

Livery,  90,  100. 

Damiano  Fra,  44. 

David,  157. 

Deerfield,  Mass.,  95. 

Delia  Robbia,  36. 

Desks,  50,  171. 

Dorfred  House,  Chicago,  45. 


194 


INDEX 


Dresser,  4. 

Dressing-Table,  136,  140. 
Dressoir,  15. 
Drop  Ornaments,  94,  95. 
Du  Barry,  114,  116,  129. 

Edward  I,  10,  11. 
Edward  III. 
Eleanor,  Queen,  10,  11. 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  85,  86,  88. 
Elizabethan  Period,  85,  86. 
Elizabethan  Style,  83,  84. 
Empire  American,  161,  190. 
Empire  Furniture,  157,  158,  159. 
Empire  Style,  155. 
Endive,  109,  111. 

Fadestol,  6. 

Fanteuil,  6,  190. 

Flanders,  18,  28,  71,  74,  86. 

Fluted  Column,  157. 

Fluted  Leg,  123,  128,  130,  151. 

Fontainbleau,  55,  56,  57,  58,  63.  103,  104. 

124. 
Francois  I,  55,  57,  58. 

Gabriel,  129. 

Garde  Meuble,  116,  124. 

Garland,  37,  123,  144. 

George  I,  133. 

George  II,  133. 

George  III,  133.  S 

Gesso,  42,  52,  152. 

Gibbon,  Dr.,  133,  134,  186. 

Gibbons,  Grinling,  133,  138. 

Gothic  Furniture,  8.  9,  10,  15,  16,  25,  28. 

Grand  Trianon,  129. 

Greek  Band,  123. 

Greek  Fret,  37,  140,  157. 

Gruuthuse,  71. 

Haddon  Hall,  20,  86. 
Hardwick  Hall,  85,  86,  87. 
Hepplewhite,  136,  139,  145,  152,  188. 
Henri  II,  55,  58,  62. 
Henri  IV,  55,  56,  60,  64. 
High-Boy,  183,  184. 
Honeysuckle,  155,  158. 


Ince,  138,  188,  190. 
Inlay,  42,  81. 
Intarsia,  42,  74. 

Jacobean  Furniture,  92,  180. 

Jacobean  Period,  92. 

Jacobean  Style,  83,  92. 

James  I,  92. 

James  II,  92,  95. 

Joined  Furniture,  90,  169. 

Jones,  Ingio,  92. 

Kas,  175. 

Kauffman,  Angelica,  146,  152. 

Knife-Boxes,  140. 

Lacquer,  117,  176. 

Laurel  Leaf,  123,  157,  158. 

Linen-Fold  Pattern,  85,  86. 

Longleat,  85. 

Louis  XIV  Style,  97,  99,  108. 

Louis  XV  Style,  109. 

Louis  XVI,   Style  121,  124,  130. 

Lozenge,  53,  86. 

Mahogany,  128,  129,  133,  134,  152,  186. 

Marie  Antoinette,  99,  123. 

Marquetry,  74,  95,  97,  104,  117,  124,  174. 

Martin  Family,  118. 

Masks,  97,  104. 

Mazarin,  Cardinal,  99,  100. 

Medici,  Catherine  de,  60,  62. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de,  46,  52. 

Medici,  Marie  de,  60,  62. 

Memorial  Hall,  Deerfield,  95. 

Meran,  Castle,  16,  30,  32. 

Messonier,  112. 

Metal  Mounts,  97, 106,  111,  114, 124,  128,  155, 

158. 

Metal  Work,  114,  115,  116,  124,  157,  158. 
Michelozzo,  46. 
Middle  Ages,  3,  6,  25,  30. 
Mirrors,  42,  176. 
Moorish  Ornament,  81. 
Museum,  British,  3,  11. 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston,  60,  72. 
Museum.  Kensington,  20,  127. 


195 


PNDEX 


Napoleon,  157,  158. 

New  England,  168,  169,  171,  182,  186. 

Oak,  10,  78,  82,  169. 

Ormolu,  104,  108,  111,  128,  158. 

Paneling,  85,  90,  95,  180. 
Prince  of  Wales  Plumes,  141. 

Quatro-Cento,  37,  48. 

Queen  Anne  Furniture,  71,  95,  186. 

Queen  Anne  Style,  95. 

Ram's  Head,  97,  104. 
Regency,  111, 113 
RENAISSANCE — 

Dutch,  69,  71. 

English,  83,  85. 

Flemish,  69,  71. 

French,  53,  57,  58,  64. 

German,  69,  77,  78. 

Italian,  33,  35,  36. 

Spanish,  79,  81. 
Rococo — 

Furniture,  64,  106,  111,  114. 

Ornament,  64,  102,  119. 

Style,  64,  111,  116. 

Salem,  88,  172. 

Saracenic,  6,  7,  8,  78,  81. 

Secretaire,  128. 

Shell  Ornament,  64,  97,  109,  111,  112. 

Sideboard,  40,  128,  136,  140,  145,  152. 

Spade-Foot,  131,  140,  141. 

Spanish-Foot,  82,  182. 

St.  Martins  Lane,  136,  150. 

Strap  Work,  58,  85,  86. 

TABLES — 

Baroque,  50,  67. 
Bolt-and  Slot,  16,  67. 
Chippendale,  136. 
Drop-Leaf,  151. 
Elizabethan,  88. 
Empire,  158. 
Flemish,  72. 
Folding,  180. 
Gate  Leg,  88,  180. 


Hepplewhite,  140. 

Jacobean,  88. 

Renaissance,  39,  50. 

Settle,  170. 

Sheraton,  151. 

Thousand-Legged,  88,  180. 

Trestle,  88. 

Wainscot,  88,  169. 
Tapestry,  41,  47,  86. 
Tre-cento,  37,  38. 
Turkey-Work,  169. 
Turned  Furniture,  88,  168,  169. 

Valladolid,  88. 
Vatican,  38. 
Vernis-Martin,  118 
Versailles,  100,  101,  104,  106. 
Vincigliata,  41,  43. 
Vouet,  Simon,  64. 

Wainscot,  88,  169. 
Westover,  178. 
Whipple  House,  186. 
William  III,  10,  74,  93. 
WOODS — 

Amboyna,  128. 

Ash,  169. 

Birch,  169. 

Cedar,  169. 

Chestnut,  22,  28. 

Cypress,  28. 

Deal,  169. 

Ebony,  108. 

Hardwood,  152, 

Hickory,  169. 

Kingwood,  152. 

Mahogany,  128,  129,  133,  134,  152,  186. 

Maple,  169. 

Oak,  10,  78,  82,  169. 

Pearwood,  152. 

Pine,  169. 

Satinwood,  152. 

Sycamore,  152. 

Tulipwood,  128,  152. 

Walnut,  28,  78,  94,  129,  169. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  92,  133. 


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